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MAINE 

itCULTURAL EXPERIMENT STA1 

ORONO, MAINE. 

CHAS, D. WOODS. Director 



m 



ULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR 
TREATMENT 



ORONO, MAINE. 

FEBRUARY, 191 1. 



v398-12-10) 

MAINE 

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 

ORONO, MAINE. 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR 
TREATMENT 



Compiled by 
Raymond Pearl, Frank M. Surface, and Maynie R. Curtis. 



ORONO, MAINE. 
February, 191 i. 






Copyright, 191 i 

BY 

Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 



4 






This publication is mailed free to residents of Maine. 
To others the price is twenty-five cents per copy. 



\s 



4. 



Table of Contents. 



PAGE 

Introduction i 

Chapter I. General Considerations Regarding the Treatment 

of Poultry Diseases 4 

Prevention Rather than Cure the Ideal 5 

Breeding for Health, Vigor and Sound Constitu- 
tion 6 

Chapter II. Poultry Hygiene 9 

Poultry House Hygiene and Sanitation 10 

How to Clean a Poultry House lo 

Disinfection II 

Formaldehyde Gas Disinfection I2 

Cresol Disinfectant I2 

Fresh Air and Light 14 

Avoid Dampness 15 

Provide Clean and Dry Litter 15 

Hygienic Feeding 15 

Avoid Overfeeding 15 

Provide Plenty of Green Food 16 

Provide Fresh and Clean Drinking Water 16 

The Land 18 

Exercise 20 

External Parasites 20 

Disposal of Dead Birds 20 

Isolation of Sickness 21 

The Essentials of Poultry Hygiene 21 

Chapter HI. The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry 22 

External Symptoms 22 

Post-Mortem Examinations 24 

How to Make a Post-mortem 25 

Chapter IV. Poultry Materia Medica 28 

The Medicine Chest 28 

An Antiseptic Ointment 30 

Tables of Apothecaries' Weights and Meas- 
ures and Their Metric Equivalents 31 

Chapter V. Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 32 

Diseases of the Crop 32 

Impacted Crop (Crop Bound) 32 

Inflammation of the Crop 34 

Enlarged Crop 36 



IV 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT, 



PAGE 

Diseases of the Stomach (Proventriculus) . . 36 

Inflammation of the Stomach (Gastritis) 36 

Diseases of the Intestines Zl 

Simple Diarrhea 2)7 

Enteritis (Dysentery) 39 

Constipation ' 41 

Indigestion 42 

Chapter VI. Poisons 44 

Common Salt, Nitrate of Soda, Lyes 44 

Arsenic 44 

Copper 44 

Lead and Zinc 45 

Phosphorus 45 

Strychnine 45 

Ergot of Rye 45 

Treatment for Poisons in General 46 

Chapter VII. Diseases of the Liver 47 

Hypertrophy or Enlargement of the Liver... 50 

Fatty Degeneration 51 

Atrophy or Wasting of the Liver 52 

Congestion and Inflammation of the Liver... 52 

Jaundice 52 

Blackhead (Infectious Entero-Hepatitis) 53 

Cercomoniasis 55 

Sarcomatosis and Carcinomatosis 55 

Chapter VIII. Tuberculosis 57 

Etiology 58 

Diagnosis 59 

Methods of Contagion 63 

Treatment 64 

Chapter IX. Cholera 66 

Diagnosis 67 

Etiology 68 

Treatment 69 

Chapter X. Diseases of the Abdominal Cavity 72 

Peritonitis 7^ 

Abdominal Dropsy or Ascites 7Z 

Chapter XL Internal Parasites 75 

Diagnosis of Worms in General 75 

Tape Worms 76 

Nodular Tseniasis 77 

Round Worms 82 

Flukes 83 

Chapter XII. Diseases of the Respiratory System 85 

Anatomy and Physiology 85 

Catarrh 87 

Bronchitis (Croup) 88 

Influenza (Epizootic, Grippe, Distemper) 89 



CONTENTS. V 

Roup (Contagious Catarrh, Diptheria, Dip- 

theritic Roup, Canker) 90 

"Pip" (Inflammation of the Mouth) 102 

Canker 103 

Thrush 103 

Aspergillosis (Mycosis of the Air Passages) 104 

Congestion of the Lungs 107 

Pneumonia 108 

Tuberculosis no 

The Air-sac Mite no 

Chapter XIII. Diseases of the Circulatory System and Blood.. 112 
Pericarditis (Inflammation of the Pericar- 
dium, Dropsy of the Heart Sac) 112 

Endocarditis (Inflammation of the Internal 

Membranes of the Heart) 112 

Myocarditis diptheritica 113 

Enlargement of the Heart (Hypertrophy).. 113 
Rupture of the Heart and Large Blood Ves- 
sels 113 

Diseases of the Blood 114 

Infectious Leukaemia 114 

Chapter XIV. Diseases of the Nervous System T18 

Apoplexy (Hemorrhage of the Brain) 118 

Heat Prostration 118 

Congestion of the Brain (Vertigo, Cerebral 

Hyperaemia) 1 19 

Epilepsy 119 

Chapter XV. Diseases of the Kidneys, Rheumatism and Lim- 

berneck 121 

Gout 121 

Visceral Gout 121 

Articular Gout 121 

Other Diseased Conditions of the Kidneys... 122 

Rheumatism 123 

Limberneck 123 

Chapter XVI. External Parasites 124 

Keeping a Poultry Plant Free from Exter- 
nal Parasites 124 

Lice 125 

How to Make an Effective and Very 

Cheap Lice Powder 130 

Mites 132 

Scaly Leg i35 

Depluming Scabies 142 

Other Mites Affecting Poultry I44 

Other External Parasites i45 

Chapter XVII. Diseases of the Skin i47 

Favus 147 

White Comb 150 



Vt POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



Chicken Pox (Sore Head or Epithelioma 

Contagiosum) 150 

Chapter XVIII. Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 155 

Anatomy and Physiology 155 

Diseases of the Ovary 160 

Atrophy 160 

Gangrene of the Ovary 163 

Ovarian Tumors 163 

Abortion of Eggs 164 

Yolk Hypertrophy 164 

Failure of Follicle Wall to Rupture 165 

Diseases of the Oviduct 165 

Inflammation 165 

Prolapse of the Oviduct 167 

Obstruction of the Oviduct (Egg Bound) 169 

Rupture of the Oviduct 173 

Gangrene of the Oviduct 174 

Breaking of Egg in Oviduct 174 

Abnormal Eggs 175 

Vent Gleet 177 

"Break Down" 179 

Diseases of the Male Reproductive Organs.. 180 

Chapter XIX. Diseases of Chickens i8t 

White Diarrhea 181 

Intestinal Coccidiosis 183 

Bacillary White Diarrhea 186 

Diagnosis of White Diarrhea in General 189 

Treatment 190 

Prevention 192 

Leg Weakness 192 

Aspergillosis or Pneumomycosis 193 

Emphysema 194 

Gapes 195 

Chapter XX. Poultry Surgery 201 

The Treatment of Cuts, Tears and All Open 

Wounds 201 

Abscess 202 

Bumblef oot 202 

Broken Bones 203 

Frozen Combs and Wattles 203. 

Anaesthetizing Poultry 203 

Glossary of Technical Terms 20s 

Ii'dex 209 



List of Illustrations. 



Fig. 


I. 


Fig. 


2. 


Fig. 


3- 


Fig. 


4- 


Fig. 


5- 


Fig. 


6. 


Fig. 


7- 


Fig. 


8. 


Fig. 


9 


Fig. 


10. 


Fig. 


II. 


Fig. 


12. 


Fig. 


13- 


Fig. 


14- 



Fig- 15 
Fig. i6 
Fig. 17 



Fig. i8. 



Showing condition of liver in "blackhead." (Modified page 
after Moore) 54 

Breast bone of a fowl showing excessive emaciation 

in tuberculosis. (After Ward) 6o 

Liver of fowl affected with tuberculosis. (After 

Ward) 6i 

Spleen from tuberculous fowl cut through the middle. 

(After Koch and Rabinowitsch) 6i 

Intestine and mesenteries of a fowl affected with tuber- 
culosis. (After Ward) 62 

Drepanidotaenia infundibulif ormis , a tape worm of the 

fowl. (After Stiles) 77 

Intestine of a fowl turned wrong side out to show 
tape worms in nodular fseniasis (After Pearson 
and Warren) 78 

Sketch showing method of introducing turpentine di- 
rectly into crop. (From Gage and Opperman) 80 

Worms protruding from a section of the intestine of 

a fowl. (After Bradshaw) 82 

Heterakis perspicillum, (From Salmon) 83 

Trematode worm or fluke showing internal structure. 

(From Thompson after Sommer) 84 

Lungs of a bird. After Salmon) 85 

Right lung of a goose. (After Owen) 85 

A lobule of the lung of a bird represented in ideal 

longitudinal section. (After Owen) 87 

Showing appearance of hen a day before death from 

roup. (From Harrison and Streit) 91 

Showing swelling of head in severe roup. (From 

Harrison and Streit) 92 

Head of a bird. The lower figure shows the maxillo- 
ocular sinus, which opens into the socket of the eye 
and communicates with the nasal cavities. The up- 
per figure shows the roup tumor on the head caused 
by the filling of this cavity with cheesy pus. (From 
Megnin) , 93 

Head of a fowl 22 days after inoculation with a culture 

of the roup bacillus. (From Harrison and Streit) 95 



Viii POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

Fig. 19. Throat and bottom of mouth with false membrane page 
(///) 14 days after inoculation. (From Harrison 

and Streit) 95 

Fig. 20. A section of a false membrane of a roupy fowl. (From 

Harrison and Streit) 9^ 

Fig. 21. Head of a bird with diphtheritic roup affecting the 

mouth and tongue. (From Megnin) 96^ 

Fig. 22. Aspergillus fumigatus. Greatly enlarged. (After 

Mohler and Buckley) 106 

Fig. 23. Cytodites niidus. The air sac mite. (After Theo- 
bald) no 

Fig. 24. The common hen louse {Menopon pallidum). Greatly 

enlarged. (From Banks) 126 

Fig. 25. Lipcurus variabilis. A louse that infests poultry. Much 

enlarged. (From Banks after Denny) 127 

Fig. 26. Goniodcs dissimilis. A louse that infests poultry 

Much enlarged. (From Banks after Denny) 127 

Fig. 27. Feathers showing eggs or "nits" of the common hen 

louse. Enlarged. (Original) 128 

Fig. 28. The common "red mite" of poultry, Dennanyssus gal- 

iiiac. (After Osborn) 133, 

Fig. 29. A. Normal leg of hen. B. Leg of hen affected with 

scaly leg. (After Megnin) 136 

Fig. 30. Photograph of the leg of a hen affected with scaly leg. 

(After Haiduk) 137 

Fig. 31. Photograph of the adult female of the mite Knemido- 

coptes (Dcrmatoryctes) imitans. After Haiduk).. 138 

Fig. 32. Photograph of the six-legged larvae of Kneniidocoptes 

(Dermatoryctes) mutans 139 

Fig. 33- Section of the skin of the leg of a fowl affected with 

scaly leg. Enlarged. (After Haiduk) 140 

Fig. 34. Egg containing female Sarcoptes laez'is var. gallinae. 

(From Theobald) 142 

Fig- 35- Symplectoptes cysticola. Connective tissue mite. 

(After Theobald) 144 

Fig. 36. "Harvest bug," Tetranychus (Leptus) autumnalis, lar- 
val form. (After Murray) 145 

Fig. 2>7- Head and neck of a fowl affected with generalized 

favus. (After Pearson) 147 

Fig. 38. The fungus Achorion sclionleinii which causes favus 

in poultry 148 

Fig- 39- Sore-head crusts on comb, eye-lids and skin. (After 

Cary) 151 

Fig. 40. The reproductive or egg-producing organs of a hen. 

(After Duval) 156 

Fig. 41. Showing shapes of abnormal eggs sometimes found. 

(From von Durski after Landois) 161 

Fig. 42. Triple yolked egg. (Original) 176 



Fig. 


43 


Fig. 


44- 


Fig. 


45- 


Fig. 


46. 


Fig. 


47- 


Fig. 


48. 


tig. 


49. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. IX 

Showing shapes of abnormal eggs sometimes found. page 
(From von Durski after Landois) 178 

Diagrammatic representation of the life history of a 

Coccidium. (After Cole and Hadley) 184 

Ten-day White Leghorn chicks showing symptoms of 
bacillary white diarrhea. (After Rettger and 
Stoneburn) 189 

Normal ten-day White Leghorn chicks. (After Rett- 
ger and Stoneburn) 189 

Trachea (windpipe) of a pheasant, showing gape 
worms (Syngainus track ealis) attached to the mu- 
cous membrane. (After Megnin) 196 

A pair of Syngamus trachealis attached. (After Meg- 
nin) . . .' 196 

A pair of Syngamus trachealis (After Megnin) 197 

(After Megnin) ^97 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



Introduction. 

It is probably safe to say that considerably more than 50 per 
cent of the correspondence of those engaged in poultry work in 
the agricultural colleges and experiment stations in this country 
relates to poultry diseases. The poultryman or farmer sees 
that some, or perhaps all, of his birds are ill, and he straightway 
writes to the nearest college or station to know what the dis- 
ease is, and what to do for it. The Maine Station has for many 
years been the recipient of a great number of such inquiries. It 
is an unfortunate, but in the nature of the case an unavoidable 
fact, that in many instances it is quite impossible to make any 
really satisfactory reply to these inquiries. In the vast major- 
ity of cases the person who writes the letter is quite untrained in 
pathology and either describes no symptoms at all or only those 
very general ones which are common to nearly all the ills of 
poultry. To one who has not handled this class of correspond- 
ence it would seem almost incredible that there should be so 
many letters of the following type : '1 have lost about a third 
of my chickens in the last few days. They seem a little dump- 
ish for a while and then die. What is the trouble and what 
shall I do for it?" To diagnose and prescribe on such a basis 
of information is impossible. Yet the hard fact remains that 
the correspondent's chickens zuere ill and did die, and he needs 
help to get out of the trouble. 

To meet this need so far as possible, and in response to a 
definite request on the part of the organized agricultural inter- 
ests of the State the present work has been prepared. What 
it aims to do is to give a clear and reasonably complete 
compilation and digest of the information now existing in the 
literature regarding the commoner diseases of poultry, their 
diagnosis, etiology, treatment and prognosis. It should be clear- 
ly understood that the book is essentially a compilation. The 
Maine Station has never conducted any special investigations 
regarding poultry diseases, and does not propose to in the imme- 



2 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

diate future at least. No one connected with the Station at the 
present time has any expert, first hand knowledge of poultry 
pathology. This being the case, the Station assumes no respon- 
sibility for the contents of this book beyond that involved in 
the compilation and editing. That is to say, the Station does not 
guarantee that any of the remedies or treatments herein pro- 
posed will cure any diseased condition. It merely puts before 
the public what appears to be the best and most reliable infor- 
mation now existing regarding these matters. If this informa- 
tion is incomplete, or fails in the attainment of the desired end, 
the fault lies with the original authority not with the compiler. 
Further it should be said that no attempt has been made to dis- 
cuss all the detailed technical accounts of the scientific study of 
avian pathology, appearing in technical journals in this country 
and Europe, and the work is, therefore, not complete in this 
sense. This material is primarily of interest only to the pro- 
fessional student of pathology. This book is not written for 
him at all, but for the practical poultryman. 

It is not intended that this book should displace any of the 
standard works on diseases in the poultryman's library. On 
the contrary it is intended merely to supplement these. In fact 
the writers would most urgently advise that every poultry keeper 
buy either one or both of the following books : 

"The Common Sense Poultry Doctor" by John H. Robinson. 
Farm Poultry Publishing Co., 232 Summer St., Boston, Mass. 
Price 50c. This seems to the writers to be, on the whole, the 
best existing book on diseases for the practical poultryman. 

"The Diseases of Poultry." By Dr. D. E. Salmon. For sale by 
Schmid's Bird & Pet Stock Emporium, 712 Twelfth St., N. W., 
Washington, D. C. Price 50c. This book gives a more thor- 
ough treatment of the subject, but is written rather more from 
the standpoint of the veterinary practitioner than from the 
standpoint of the practical poultryman. 

In writing this work free use has been made of the stand- 
ard authorities on the subject, including the books cited above, 
as well as the following: — 

"Diseases of Poultry," by Leonard Pearson. 

"Farm Poultry Doctor," by N. W. Sanborn. 

"Reliable Poultry Remedies," published by the Reliable Pub- 
lishing Co., Quincy, Illinois. 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 3 

"Die Krankheiten des Hausgeflligels," by F. A. Ziirn. 

''Manual of Poultry Diseases," by Vale. 

"Diseases of Poultry," by F. Woodroffe Hill. 

Also use has been made of the portions of standard works on 
poultry husbandry, which deal with disease. 

In every case acknowledgement is made to the authorities 
cited. 



CHAPTER I. 



Gknkral Considkrations Regarding the Treatment of 
PouETRY Diseases. 

There is general agreement on the part of authorities on 
poiihry pathology and practical poultrymen of long experience 
that in general, "doctoring" poultry is not advisable. The rea- 
sons for this attitude are primarily the following : 

1. The unit of production with poultry (i. e., the individual 
bird) is of relatively small value, and if a man's time is worth 
anything it is too valuable to spend treating sick chickens indi- 
vidually unless they are show specimens of great individual 
value. 

2. The "cured" chicken is a menace to the owner, because its 
identity is likely to be overlooked or forgotten, with the result 
that it goes into the breeding pen and perpetuates through its 
offspring the constitutional weakness which was one fundamen- 
tal factor in bringing about the result that it, rather than some 
01 its fellows, was ill. 

This point of view has been well stated by Wright in the fol- 
lowing words : 

'Tn a large proportion of cases of disease, the birds ought to 
die or be killed. Even where there is no constitutional taint, the 
fact that they have succumbed to circumstances which have not 
affected others, marks them out as the weakest, which unaided 
Nature-would assuredly weed out, and which if we preserve and 
breed from, perpetuate some amount of that weakness in the 
progeny. Rheumatism, for instance, can be cured ; of that there 
is no doubt. But the vast majority who have had such success, 
agree that the effects are either never recovered from as regards 
strength and vigor, or else that the original weakness continues ; 
and the same may be said of some severe contagious diseases, 
such as diphtheritic roup, which may affect the strongest. On 
the other hand, many diseases also apparently contagious, and so 
attacking healthy birds under certain predisposing conditions of 
exposure or other coincident strain upon the system, do not ap- 



POULTRY DISEASe:s and THEIR TREATMENT. 5 

pear to leave serious results behind them, and are tolerably defi- 
nite in symptoms and character. It is these which may be most 
successfully treated, and in which treatment is most worth while 
where fowls of value are concerned. But it is significant that 
nearly all breeders who rear really large numbers of poultry, 
gradually come to the conclusion that, except in special cases, 
with valuable birds, the most economical treatment of serious 
disease occurring in a yard is — execution. Concerning this mat- 
ter each must judge for himself." 

In the case of the utility poultryman, keeping poultry solely 
for the eggs and meat they produce, practically the only diseased 
conditions which it will pay him to treat at all are those in which 
the treatment can be applied to the flock as a whole, without 
the necessity of handling individual birds. Thus, for example, 
in cases where the flock "goes ofif its feed," or has simple indi- 
gestion or a simple cold, the birds can be treated successfully as 
a flock. On the other hand, in the case of the fancier, who has 
individual birds of considerable value there will be a much 
wider range of diseases which he will feel that it is profitable 
for him to treat. There are, of course, certain diseased condi- 
tions which demand individual treatment, but in which the treat- 
ment is so simple and the outcome is almost certain to be so good, 
as to justify its employment even in the case of birds of ordinary 
value. An example of such a condition is found in a crop bound 
bird. Robinson sums the matter up very well in the following 
basic rule for poultry doctoring : 

"Give treatment when it can be applied to a flock conveniently 
and with reasonable expectation of beneficial results, and treat 
individuals, if necessary, when treatment is simple, easy, and 
needs to be administered but very few times." 

Prevention Rather Than Cure the Ideal. 
The aim of every poultry keeper, whether his interest is in the 
fancy or the utility end of the business, should be to breed and 
manage his birds so as to prevent entirely, or reduce to a mini- 
mum, the occurrence of disease. In other words, the attitude 
should be that the end to be sought is to prevent the occurrence 
of disease, rather than to rely on a rather dubious ability to 
cure it after it is there. Such a standpoint is sound from every 
point of view ; it is in line with the whole development of mod- 
ern medicine. The poultry doctor should regard his function 



6 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

as the same as that of the Chinese physician, who is primarily 
employed to keep the patient from becoming ill, only secondarily 
to cure him. 

Now there are fundamentally two factors involved in the con- 
tinued maintenance of good health in poultry (or, for the matter 
of that, in any other animal). These are: 

1. A sound and vigorous constitution, w^hich if present, is 
something innate and "bred in the bone," and which, if absent, 
must he bred into the stock. 

2. A system of poultry management (including feeding, hous- 
ing, etc.) zvhich is thoroughly and absolutely hygienic. 

Let us consider each of these factors separately in some 
detail. 

Breeding for Health, Vigor, and Sound Constitution. 

To have a high degree of constitutional vigor in the founda- 
tion stock is one of the most certain assurances that the poultry- 
man will not be troubled with disease. This is of primary 
importance. In order to breed constitutional vigor into the flock 
the poultryman must train himself to recognize at a glance the 
condition of his birds. Are they in good condition or not ? Re- 
garding the aspect of fowls in health and disease Salmon has the 
following to say : 

*'We say that a bird is in good health when it appears lively, 
has a clear eye, a bright red comb, is quick and active in its 
movements, has a good appetite and when the various organs 
perform their functions in the manner in which they are observed 
to act in all birds that are vigorous and thriving. On the other 
hand, we say a bird is diseased when some function or functions 
of its body are not performed as they are the great majority of 
individuals, or when some organ presents an unusual form or 
appearance. Disease has, therefore, been defined as a life the 
manifestations of which deviate more or less from the normal. 
Practically, we say a bird is diseased when we observe that one 
or more of its functions are not carried on in a normal manner, 
or when we find unusual growths, injuries, or parasites affecting 
any of its organs." 

In a recent article Dr. P. T. Woods (Amer. Poult. World, 
Vol. I, Jan. 1 910) gives some excellent advice in regard to 
breeding for health and vigor. This is, in many respects, the 
best brief summary of this important subject which we have 
been able to find in the literature. He says : — 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. J 

''The Health Type. — For all practical purposes, the type of 
health and strength and the type of weakness, of lacking bodily 
vigor, are easily differentiated. Do not mistake the purely ner- 
vous energy of closely bred thoroughbreds for an indication of 
vigor. This may be simply the mettlesome spirit of the thor- 
oughbred and alone is of no great value as a guide to health ; 
combined with satisfactory physical qualities it is a desirable 
asset." 

"Choosing the Male Bird. — Always bear in mind that the 
male bird is for all practical purposes half of the flock. The 
male should be fully matured, well developed specimen, neither 
too young nor too old. Male birds from twelve months to two 
and one-half years old usually make the best breeders. He 
should be the son of sound healthy parents and should, so far 
as possible, inherit from them the qualities which are desired 
for chicks of his get. He should be particularly strong in all 
points or physical vigor, and Standard requirements, where 
his mates show any traces of weakness. Have him as nearly 
perfect in Standard shape as possible, and of medium size and 
weight for the variety. Too heavy males often seriously injure 
their mates and are not desirable in the breeding pen." 

"The head should be rather large, broad and of good shape, 
well carried. The eye should be bright, round and full with no 
irregularities in shape of pupil. The comb, face and wattles 
should be a good healthy color, neither too pale nor too dark. 
The beak should be rather short, stout and set well at the base. 
The long, flattened beak of 'crow headed' birds or the misshapen 
'hawk bill' are almost certain signs of physical weakness. The 
neck should be of medium length for the variety and rather full ; 
the long, thin, 'scrawny' neck goes with the 'crow head.' " 

"The body should be well filled out and carried in the well- 
set-up manner indicative of a well ordered system of nutrition, — 
a good digestion. The plumage should be bright, lustrous and 
carried rather closely for the variety." 

"Mopey, dopey, loosely feathered birds with dull plumage and 
a listless 'don't care for life' manner are too short on good 
health to be of value as breeding stock.'' 

"The legs should be medium short for the variety, strong and 
rather large boned and set well apart. The keel bone should be 
firm and strais^ht. There should be no deformities." 



8 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

"Leggy birds, knock-kneed and with crooked breast bones are 
always lacking in physical vigor even if it does not show on 
the surface." 

"The male should be attentive and gallant to his mates, should 
have a clear lusty crow, free from any rattle at the end. He 
should be sound in wind and able to fight or run without short- 
ness of breath or livid appearance of face and comb." 

"A good breeder will have a good appetite and will usually be 
of a rather 'scrappy' disposition, disposed to resent any inter- 
ference with his mates by other fowls or by the attendant." 

''Choosing the Female. — The female should be a well-grown, 
well-developed, fully-matured pullet or sound and vigorous 
yearling or two year old. The health type will be active, alert 
and inclined to be talkative, 'singing' cheerfully, and disposed 
to scratch and forage. She is usually the first off the roost in 
the morning and the last to go to bed at night. Head, eye, 
condition of plumage and leg requirements are practically the 
same as those called for under 'Choosing the Male Bird,' mak- 
ing due allowance for sex." 

"The body should be broad, deep, well filled out and medium 
large for the variety. The breast should be broad, full and well 
meated ; the back should be" broad and the tail well spread at the 
base. Wry tails, crooked backs or keels, or pinched tails should 
disqualify for the breeding pen. The abdomen should be well 
carried and rather full, but should not 'bag down.' " 



CHAPTER II. 



PouivTRY Hygiene. 

Second in importance only to high constitutional vigor and 
health is attention to the basic rules of hygiene and sanitation 
in the management of poultry. In view of the prevalent mis- 
understanding or lack of understanding of these principles it 
seems wise to devote one chapter to an outline of the more im- 
portant points which need to be looked after in hygienic poultry 
keeping. Attention to the rules and principles here set forth will 
go a great ways towards preventing the occurrence of disease. 
This does not mean that if these rules are not followed disease 
and destruction will forthwith result. Everyone knows of plenty 
of instances of more or less successful poultry keeping under 
the most insanitary and unhygienic of conditions. So similarly 
human beings are able when forced to do so to live under un- 
hygienic conditions. But every civilized country in the world 
believes that the most economical insurance against the steady 
loss of national wealth which the prevalence of disease involves 
is the enforcement of sanitary regulations throughout its domain. 
Again, many men who do not carry fire insurance on their 
buildings go through life without having any of them burn down. 
But this is no argument against the fact that it is a sound eco- 
nomic policy to carry fire insurance. In poultry keeping many 
may be successful for a time in managing their birds in 
defiance of the laws of sanitation and hygiene ; a very fezv may 
be successful in this practice for a long time, but in the long 
run the vast majority will find that thorough, careful, and intel- 
ligent attention to these laws will be one of the best guarantees 
of permanent success that they can find. 

Poultry hygiene and sanitation will be considered here under 
7 main heads, as follows : i. Housing. 2. Feeding. 3. The 
Land. 4. Exercise. 5. External Parasites. 6. Disposal of 
the Dead. 7, Isolation of Sickness. What is said under all of 
these heads is intended to apply (unless a specific statement to 
the contrary is made) both to adult birds and to chicks. No 



10 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIE TREATMENT. 

discussion of the hygiene of incubation, or of the relative merits 
of artificially and naturally hatched chickens will be undertaken 
here, because there are special subjects falling outside the field 
of general poultry hygiene. 

I. POUETRY HOUSE HYGIENE AND SANITATION. 

A. Cleanliness. — The thing of paramount importance in the 
hygienic housing of poultry is cleanliness. By this is meant not 
merely plain, ordinary cleaning up, in the housewife sense, but 
also bacteriological cleaning up ; that is, disinfection. All build- 
ings or structures of whatever kind in which poultry are housed 
during any part of their lives should be subjected to a most 
thorough and searching cleaning and disinfection at least once 
every year. This cleaning up should naturally come for each 
different structure (i. e., laying, colony or brooder house, indi- 
vidual brooder, incubator, etc.) at a time which just precedes 
the putting of new stock into this structure. 

Hozv to clean a poultry house: Not every poultryman of 
experience even, knovvs how really to clean up a poultry house. 
The first thing to do is to remove all the litter and loose dirt 
which can be shovelled out. Then give the house — floor, walls 
and ceiling — a thorough sweeping and shovel out the accumu- 
lated debris. Then play a garden hose, with the maximum water 
pressure which can be obtained, upon floor, roosting boards, 
walls and ceiling, until all the dirt which washes down easily is 
disposed of. Then take a heavy hoe or roost board scraper and 
proceed to scrape the floor and roosting boards, clean of the 
trampled, and caked dressing and dirt. Then shovel out what 
has been accumulated and get the hose into action once more and 
wash the whole place down again thoroughly and follow this 
with another scraping. With a stiff bristled broom thoroughly 
scrub walls, floors, nest boxes, roost boards, etc. Then after 
another rinsing down and cleaning out of accumulated dirt, let 
the house dry out for a day or two. Then make a searching 
inspection to see if any dirt can be discovered. If so apply the 
appropriate treatment as outlined above. If, however, every- 
thing appears to be clean, the time has come to make it reallv 
clean by disinfection. To do this it is necessary to spray or 
thoroughly wash with a scrub brush wet in the solution used all 
parts of the house with a good disinfectant at least twice, allow- 
ing time between for it to dry. For this purpose 3 per cent 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. II 

cresol solution is recommended. The chief thing is to use an 
effective disinfectant and plenty of it, and apply it at least twice. 
A discussion of disinfectants immediately follows this section. 
To complete the cleaning of the house, after the second spraying 
of disinfectant is dry apply a liquid lice killer (made by putting 
I part crude carbolic acid or cresol with 3 parts kerosene) lib- 
erally to nests and roosts and nearby walls. After all this is 
done the house will be clean. In houses cleaned annually in this 
way the first step is taken towards hygienic poultry keeping. 

The same principles which have been here brought out should 
be applied in cleaning brooders, brooder houses, and other things 
on the plant wath which the birds come in contact. 

What has been said has reference primarily to the annual or 
semi-annual cleaning. It should not be understood by this that 
no cleaning is to be done at any other time. On the contrary 
the rule should be to keep the poultry house clean at all times, 
never allowing filth of any kind to accumulate and using plenty 
of disinfectant. 

Disinfection. — In the matter of disinfection there are several 
options open to the poultryman. He may make his own disin- 
fectant, or he may purchase proprietary compounds like Zeno- 
leum, Carbolineum or a host of other "eums" which confront him 
at every turn in his reading of poultry periodicals, or he may buy 
a plain disinfectant like formaldehyde, or carbolic acid. 

The Experiment Station has tried various disinfectants with 
a view to finding the most useful, when the factors of efficiency, 
ease of application and low cost, are considered. There is prob- 
ably no more effective disinfectant than formaldehyde, but after 
trying it out it was necessary to abandon it as a general 
poultry house disinfectant. The difficulty was that a man could 
not stand the fumes long enough to spray and scrub out thor- 
oughly a pen. Formaldehyde is very good where it can be used, 
and there is no cheaper disinfectant, efficiency considered. Dr. 
P. T. Woods has recently advocated the formaldehyde gas meth- 
od for disinfecting poultry houses, using the permanganate meth- 
od of generating. This, however, is indicated only for rooms 
which can easily be closed up air tight. It costs too much in 
time and trouble to make any form of ''fresh air" poultry house 
even moderately air tight. The formaldehyde gas method is 
well adapted to disinfecting and fumigating feed rooms, incuba- 



12 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

tor cellars, brooder houses and all houses which can be readily 
made air tight. For the benefit of those who wish to use the 
method for such purposes the following directions are given. 
This will give a very strong fumigation and disinfection but such 
is indicated about poultry establishments. 

"Formaldehyde Gas Disinfection: First make the room as 
tight as possible by stopping cracks, key-holes, etc., with pieces 
of cloth or similar substance. Open drawers and doors of bu- 
reaus, wardrobes, and closets to allow free access of the gas. 
Use a metal or earthern dish for a generator, of sufficient size 
so that the hquid will not spatter or boil over on the floor, since 
the permanganate will stain. The temperature of the room 
should not be below 50° F. and more effective disinfection 
will be obtained if the temperature is 80° F. or above at the 
beginning. Sprinkle boiling water on the floor or place a kettle 
of boiling water in the room to create a moist atmosphere. 
Spread the permanganate evenly over the bottom of the dish and 
quickly pour in the formaldehyde (40 per cent strength as pur- 
chased). Leave and tightly close the room at once and allow to 
remain closed for 4-6 hours or longer, then air thoroughly." Use 
2^ ounces of permanganate and j pints of formaldehyde to each 
1000 cubic feet of space. 

For general disinfectant purposes about a poultry plant the 
Station has found the cheapest and most effective disinfectant 
to be compound cresol solution. This is used here for spraying 
and disinfecting the houses after they are cleaned, disinfecting 
brooders, brooder houses, incubators, nests and everything else 
about the plant which can be disinfected with a liquid substance. 
Any person can easily make this disinfectant. The following 
revised directions for its manufacture are quoted from Bulletin 
179 of this Station. 

Cresol Disinfectant. — The active base of cresol soap disinfect- 
ing solution is commercial cresol. This is a thick, sirupy fluid 
varying in color in different lots from a nearly colorless fluid to 
a dark brown. It does not mix readily with water, and, there- 
fore, in order to make satisfactory a dilute solution, it is neces- 
sary first to incorporate the cresol with some substance like soap 
which will mix with water and will carry the cresol over into 
the mixture. The commercial cresol as it is obtained, is a cor- 
rosive substance, being in this respect not unlike carbolic acid. 



POULTRY DISKASl^S AND THEIR TREATMENT. 1 3 

It should, of course, be handled with great care and the pure cre- 
sol should not be allowed to come in contact with the skin. If it 
does so accidentally the spot should be immediately washed off 
with plenty of clean water. The price of commercial cresol 
varies with the drug market. It can be obtained through any 
druggist. On the day that this was written the quotation on 
cresol in the New York market is 24 cents per pound. In pur- 
chasing this article one should order simply ''commercial cre- 
sol." 

Measure out 31-5 quarts of raw linseed oil in a 4 or 5 gallon 
stone crock ; then weigh out in a dish i lb. 6 oz. of commercial 
lye or ''Babbit's potash." Dissolve this lye in as little water as 
will completely dissolve it. Start with ^ pint of water, and if 
this will not dissolve all the lye, add more water slowly. Let 
this stand for at least 3 hours until the lye is completely dissolved 
and the solution is cold ; then add the cold lye solution very slow- 
ly to the linseed oil, stirring constantly. Not less than 5 minutes 
should be taken for the adding of this solution of lye to the oil. 
After the lye is added continue the stirring until the mixture is 
in the condition and has the texture of a smooth homogeneous 
liquid soap. This ought not to take more than a half hour. 
Then while the soap is in this liquid state, and before it has a 
chance to harden add, with constant stirring, 8^ quarts of com- 
mercial cresol. The cresol will blend perfectly with the soap 
solution and make a clear, dark brown fluid. The resulting solu- 
tion will mix in any proportion with water and yield a clear 
solution. 

Cresol soap is an extremely powerful disinfectant. In the 
Station poultry plant for general purposes of disinfecting the 
houses, brooder houses, incubators, nests, and other wood work, 
it should be used in a 3 per cent solution with water. Two or 3 
tablespoons full of the cresol soap to each gallon of water will 
make a satisfactory solution. This solution may be applied 
through any kind of spray pump or with a brush. Being a clear 
watery fluid it can be used in any spray pump without difflculty. 
For disinfecting brooders or incubators which there is reason 
to believe have been particularly liable to infection with the 
germs of white diarrhea or other diseases the cresol may be 
used in double the strength given above and applied with a scrub 
brush in addition to the spray. 



14 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATiMTXT. 

B. Fresh Air and Light. — Too great stress cannot be laid on 
the importance of plenty of fresh air in the poultry house if the 
birds are to keep in good condition. And it must be remem- 
bered in this connection that ''fresh" air, and cold stagnant air 
are two very different things. Too many of the types of curtain 
front and so-called "fresh air" houses now in use are without 
any provision other than an obliging southerly wind, to insure the 
circulation or changing of air within the house. Even with an 
open front house it is wise to provide for a circulation of air 
in such way that direct drafts cannot strike the birds. This 
applies not only to the housing of adult birds in laying houses, 
but also to the case of young stock in colony houses on the 
range.* Further a circulation of fresh air under the hover in 
artificial rearing is greatly to be desired and will have a marked 
effect on the health and vigor of the chicks. 

Not only should the poultry house be such as to furnish plenty 
of fresh air, but it should also be light. The prime importance 
of sunlight in sanitation is universally recognized by medical 
authorities. Disease germs cannot stand prolonged exposure to 
the direct rays of the sun. Sunlight is Nature's great disin- 
fectant. Its importance is no less in poultry than in human sani- 
tation. The following statement made some years ago (1904) 
by a writer signing himself *'M" in Farm Poultry (Vol. 15) 
brings home in a few words the importance of having plenty of 
light in the poultry house. 

"Light in the poultry house has been found by a writer a 
great help in keeping the house clean and keeping the fowls 
healthy. Probably there is no greater assistance to the diseases 
of poultry than dark and damp houses, and dark houses are 
frequently damp. In recent years I have had both kinds of ex- 
perience, those with the hens confined in a large, dry and light 
house, and with hens confined in a dark house in which a sin- 
gle window looking towards the setting sun furnished the only 
light. Being forced to use the latter building for an entire 
winter I found it impossible to get it thoroughly dried out after 
a rain had rendered the walls damp. By spring some of the 
fowls that had been confined there began to die of a mysterious 



*See in this connection the modification of the Maine Station colony 
house to insure circulation of air, as given in U. S. Dept. Agr. Farm- 
ers' Bulletin 357. 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 1 5 

disease and a post-mortem examination showed it to be liver 
disease. Later the roup broke out in the same house and this 
dread disease continued with the flock for months exacting a 
heavy toll in laying hens." 

C. Avoid Dampness. Of all unfavorable environmental 
conditions into which poultry may, by bad management, be 
brought, a damp house is probably the worst. Nothing will 
diminish the productivity of a flock so quickly and surely as 
will dampness in the house, and nothing is so certain and speedy 
an excitant to roup and kindred ills. The place where poultry 
are housed must be kept dry if the flock is to be productiz'c 
cind free from disease. 

D. Provide Clean and Dry Litter. Experience has demon- 
strated that the best way in which to give fowls exercise during 
the winter months in which, in northern climates at least, they 
must be housed the greater part if not all of the time, is by pro- 
viding a deep litter in which the birds scratch for their dry 
grain ration. For this litter the Experiment Station uses pine 
planer shavings, with a layer of straw on top. Whatever the 
litter it should be changed as often as it gets damp or dirty. 

II. HYGIENIC FEEDING. 

Along with housing as a prime factor in poultry sanitation 
goes feeding. This is not the place to enter upon a detailed dis- 
cussion of the compounding of rations and such topics, but there 
are certain basic principles of hygienic feeding which must 
always be looked after if one is to avoid diseases. There are : 

A. Purity. It should be a rule of every poultryman never 
to feed any material which is not clean and wholesome. Musty 
and mouldy grain, tainted meat scraps or cut bone, table scraps 
which have spoiled, and decayed fruits or vegetables should 
never be fed. If this consideration were always kept in mind 
many cases of undiagnosed sickness and deaths, and low condi- 
tion in the stock would be avoided. Keep all utensils in which 
food is placed clean. 

B. Avoid Overfeeding. Intensive poultry keeping involves 
of necessity heavy feeding, but one should constantly be on 
the lookout to guard against overfeeding, which puts the bird 
into a state of lowered vitality in which its natural powers of 
resistance to all forms of infectious and other diseases are re- 
duced. The feeding of high protein concentrates like linseed or 



l6 POULTRY DISe:ASKS AND THE:iR TREATMENT. 

cotton seed meal needs to be particularly carefully watched in 
this respect. 

C. Provide Plenty of Green Food. Under natural condi- 
tions poultry are free eaters of green grass and other plants. 
Such green food supplies a definite need in metabolism, the 
place of which can be taken by no other sort of food material. It 
is not enough merely to supply succulence in the ration. Fowls 
need a certain amount of succulent food, but they also need fresh 
green food. The Station has found green sprouted oats, when 
properly prepared, to be an excellent source of winter green 
food. Full directions for sprouting oats are given in Bulletin 
179 of the Maine Station, a copy of which may be had upon 
application to the Director of the Station. 

D. Provide Fresh and Clean Drinking Water. The most 
sure and rapid method by which infectious diseases of all kinds 
are transmitted through a flock of birds is by means of the 
water pail from which they all drink in common. Furthermore 
the water itself may come from a contaminated source and be 
the origin of infection to the flock. Finally it is difficult to de- 
vise any satisfactory drinking fountain in which the water is 
not liable to contamination from litter, manure, etc. All these 
considerations indicate the advisability of adding to all drinking 
water which is given to poultry some substance which shall act 
as a harmless antiseptic. The best of all such substances yet 
discovered for use with poultry is potassium permanganate. 
This is a dark reddish-purple crystalline substance which can 
be bought of any druggist. It ought never to cost more than 
20C-30C per pound and a pound will last for a long time. It 
should be used in the following way : In the bottom of a large 
mouthed jar, bottle or can, put a layer of potassium permanga- 
nate crystals an inch thick. Fill up the receptacle with water. 
This water will dissolve all of the crystals that it is able to. This 
will make a stock saturated solution. A.s this solution is 
used add more water and more crystals as needed, always aim- 
ing to keep a layer of undissolved crystals at the bottom. Keep 
a dish of stock solution like this alongside the faucet or pump 
where the water is drawn for the poultry. Whenever any water 
is drazvn for either chicks or adult fozvls add enough of the^ 
stock solution to give the zvater a rather deep zvine color. This 
means i to 2 teaspoons of the stock solution to 10 quarts of 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 17 

water. At the same time one should clean and disinfect the 
drinking pails and fountains regularly, just as he would if he 
were not using potassium permanganate. At the Station plant 
for some 2 years past no bird has ever had a drink of water from 
the time it was hatched which did not contain potassium per- 
manganate, except such water as it got from mud puddles and 
the like. 

Dr. G. B. Morse, the well known authority on poultry dis- 
eases of the Department of Agriculture, had the following to 
say regarding this point in a recent address (Rel. Poult. Jour. 
Oct. 1910). After describing the potassium permanganate 
method, as well as two others, directed to the same end, but 
in the opinion of the present writers not so desirable as this, 
he goes on to say: ''Water-borne diseases are frequent in the 
poultry yard. Clean and disinfect your drinking- fountains (and 
you must) ever so well, if you are permitting, consciously or 
unwittingly, to run at large one bird sick with any of the con- 
tagious diseases of the head parts or with bowel diseases, you 
may count on that water supply being contaminated in less 
than one hour's time. In the case of a large flock affected 
with flagellate diarrhoea I have myself found the flagellates in 
less than one hour's time in the drinking water which had been 
sterilized and placed in thoroughly disinfected fountains. Do 
you not see where such a condition as this forces you ? Right up 
against the principle of the individual drinking cup. Ridicu- 
lous, do you say? Not a bit. I did not say 'the individual 
drinking cup,' but the 'principle of the individual drinking cup.' 
Boards of health are recognizing that by means of the common, 
public drinking-cup foul and terrible diseases are being spread 
among people. It is just so with your poultry, and while you 
cannot adopt the individual cup you can incorporate the prin- 
ciple of it in your hygienic methods by adding ***** 
one of the antiseptics named. It is true, in the proportions 
named, these remedies do not disinfect the water, only act as 
antiseptics, that is, act to hinder the developement of bacteria 
and other microbes. The water itself should be changed fre- 
quently. This hindering of microbian growth occurs not only 
in the fountain but is kept up in the intestinal tract." 



l8 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT, 

III. THE LAND. 

One of the most important considerations in poultry sanita- 
tion is to keep the ground on which the birds are to Hve both 
as chicks and as adults from becoming foul and contaminated. 
This is not a very difficult thing to do if one has enough land 
and practices a definite and systematic crop rotation in which 
poultry form one element. On the open range where chicks 
are raised a 3 year rotation is entirely feasible and serves its 
purpose well. Such a system of cropping would be something 
as follows : First year, chickens ; second year, a hoed crop, 
like beets, cabbage, mangels or corn, the ground to be seeded 
down to timothy and clover after the crop is taken off; third 
year, in grass ; fourth year, chickens again. Other cropping sys- 
tems to serve the same purpose can easily be devised. 

To maintain the runs connected with a permanent poultry 
house where adult birds are kept in a sweet and clean condition 
is a more difficult problem. About the best that one can do 
here is to arrange alternate sets of runs so that one set may be 
used one year and the other set the next, purifying the soil so 
far as may be by plowing and harrowing thoroughly annually, 
and planting exhaustive crops. Failing the possibility of alter- 
nating in this way, disinfection and frequent plowing are the 
only resources left. 

The following excellent advice on this subject is given by the 
English poultry expert Mr. E. T. Brown (Farm Poultry, Vol. 
18, p. 294) : "Tainted ground is responsible for many of the 
diseases from which fowls suffer, and yet it is a question that 
rarely receives the attention it deserves. The chief danger of 
tainted soil arises when fowls are kept in confinement, but still 
we often find that even with those at liberty the land over which 
they are running is far from pure. So long as the grass can be 
kept growing strongly and vigorously there is small fear of foul 
ground, as the growth absorbs the manure ; it is when the grass 
becomes worn away that the chief danger arises. The manure 
constantly falling upon the same small area, and there being 
nothing to use it up, the land is bound in a short space of time 
to become so permeated as to be thoroughly unfit for fowls. 
The question is very often asked in connection with this subject 
as to how many fowls a certain sized piece of land will accom- 
modate the whole year through. Occasionally one may see in 



POULTRY DISE:ASES AND THKIR TR^ATME^NT. I9 

some of the agricultural or poultry journals this question an- 
swered, but as a matter of fact to give any stated number is most 
misleading. It depends very largely upon the class of soil, as 
some can carry twice as many birds as others ; it depends upon 
the breed of poultry, some being much more active than others, 
and thus requiring more space; it depends, too, upon the time 
of year, because during the spring and summer, when there is 
an abundance of vegetable growth in the soil, a considerably 
larger number of birds can be maintained than during the 
autumn or winter. The number must be varied according to 
these circumstances, and no hard and fast rule is applicable." 

"The results of tainted ground are generally quickly notice- 
able, as the fowls have a sickly appearance, the feathers lose their 
brilliant lustre, and the wings begin to droop. Roup, gapes, and 
other ailments speedily show themselves, causing, if not death 
itself, considerable loss and unpleasantness. One of the greatest 
advantages to be derived from portable houses is that they so 
greatly reduce the risk of tainted ground, as they are being 
constantly moved from one place to another, thus evenly dis- 
tributing the manure. When it is remembered that each adult 
fowl drops nearly a hundred weight of manure in the course 
of a year, the importance of this question will be immediately 
realized. It is quite possible, however, provided that suitable 
precautions are taken, to keep a comparatively small run pure 
for a long time. If the grass is short it should be occasionally 
swept, in this manner removing a good deal of the manure. An- 
other important point is to always have around the house a space 
of gravel, upon which the birds should be fed, and if swept once 
or twice a week this will have a wonderful effect in preserving 
the purity of the grass portion. Anyone who has observed poul- 
try will know how fond they are of constantly being near the 
house, and thus the greater portion of their droppings falls within 
its immediate vicinity. The shape of the run also has a great 
bearing upon the length of time it will remain untainted, a long 
narrow run being much superior to a square one. I have proved 
by my own experience how true this is, and probably a long and 
narrow run, containing the same amount of space will remain 
pure twice as long. It is unnecessary here to go into a full 
explanation of why this is so, but I may state the fact, which 
I am confident is quite correct. If the space at one's disposal 



20 POULTRY DISE;ASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

is very limited it is a good plan to divide it into two equal parts, 
placing the house in the middle. During one year one-half 
would be available for the fowls, the other being planted with 
some quickly growing vegetables, the order being reversed the 
year following. The vegetable growth has the effect of quickly 
using up the manure, and in this manner quite a small plot of 
land can be heavily stocked with poultry for an unlimited num- 
ber of years. If the soil becomes at all foul it is a good plan to 
water it with a i per cent solution of sulphuric acid, or to apply 
a light dressing of gas lime." 

IV. EXERCISE. 

If poultry are to be in good condition, and maintain their 
normal resistance to disease they must exercise. As chicks they 
will do this on the range. As adults (in climates like that of 
Maine) the most feasible way to bring this about is to provide 
litter and make the birds scratch for their feed. 

v. EXTERNAL PARASITES. 

In hygienic poultry keeping the birds must be kept reasonably 
free at all times of lice, mites, and all other forms of external 
parasites. Directions for dealing with this matter are given in 
detail farther on in this b)Ook in the chapter on External Para- 
sites. It is desired here merely to call attention to the matter 
as one of the general principles of hygienic poultry management. 

VI. DISPOSAL OE DEAD BIRDS. 

The poultry plant which does not have some dead birds to 
dispose of from time to time has yet to be started. Just in con- 
nection with the disposal of such dead birds is one of the weak- 
est points in poultry sanitation as too commonly practiced. The 
number of poultry keepers who throw dead birds on the manure 
pile or out on a temporary unused field is much too large. This 
is a short sighted and dangerous procedure. Anyone who con- 
tinues for a long enough time to dispose of his dead birds in 
such a way is tolerably sure, sooner or later, to be wiped out of 
business by an epidemic, with a thoroughness and despatch which 
will leave him wondering what in the world has happened. 

The most sanitary method of disposal of dead bodies is crema- 
tion. Wherever it is possible every dead bird should be burned 



POUI.TRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 21 

just as soon as may be after death has occurred. In many cases, 
however, a farmer or poultryman is not so situated as to be able 
to burn dead animals without too great an expenditure of time 
or labor. In this event burial is about the only alternative, and 
here, as in the song, it is wise to dig the grave "both wide and 
deep," especially deep. Otherwise, through the aid of foxes, 
dogs, skunks, or other creatures, the dead may "rise again" in 
a literal and most insanitary manner. 

VII. ISOI.ATION OE SICKNESS. 

Whether one expects to treat the bird or to kill it, every indi- 
vidual that shows signs of sickness should be removed from the 
general flock. When the bird has been isolated a decision as to 
what will be done about the case can be reached at leisure, and 
in the meantime the flock is not subjected to the danger of in- 
fection. This is an important matter with young chickens as 
well as with adult stock. 



The Essentials Of Poultry Hygiene. 

To summarize this discussion of poultry hygiene and sanita- 
tion it may be said that the essentials in the hygienic and sanitary 
management of poultry are 

1. Clean Houses. 

2. Clean Air. 

3. Clean Food. 

4. Clean Water. 

5. Clean Yards and Clean Range. 

6. Clean Incubators and Brooders. 

7. Clean Birds, Outside and Inside. 



CHAPTER III. 



The Diagnosis of thk Diseases of Pouetry. 

The first thing that the poultry keeper whose birds are ill 
wants to know is: "What ails my chickens?" Before he can 
use this or any other book on poultry diseases effectively in 
getting advice for the treatment of disease he must diagnose 
the trouble. It is the purpose of this chapter to help him do 
this, and in this way make this book more useful to the practical 
poultryman. At the outstart it should be said that the abso- 
lutely certain differential diagnosis of particular diseases of 
poultry, by the farmer or poultryman, either on the basis of 
external symptoms or post-mortem examination is in nearly 
every case impossible. The best that can be done practically 
is to determine into zvhat general class of diseases a particular 
trouble falls. 

There are two general sources of information upon which to 
base a diagnosis of disease. These are : 
I. External symptoms. 

II. Post-mortem examination. 

EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS, W^TH A TABLE TO AID IN THE IDENTIFI- 
CATION OF THE CHIEF CLASSES OF POULTRY DISEASES. 

There are certain external symptoms which are characteristic 
in a way of nearly all diseases. These symptoms merely indi- 
cate that the bird is sick; they are of no value for purposes of 
differential diagnosis. 

These general symptoms of illness may be described as fol- 
lows : A sick fowl is usually quiet, and does not move about 
unless disturbed. It stands or sits with the neck contracted so 
that the head is pulled well- in to the body, giving the bird a 
"humped up" appearance. The eyes are often closed, entirely 
or partly, giving the bird a sleepy appearance. Often the 
feathers are roughened and stick out all over the body. The 
comb and wattles may be dark or, on the other hand, may be 
very pale. 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



23 



When a bird shows these general symptoms of illness it should 
be picked up and isolated and an effort made to obtain a more 
precise diagnosis. In doing this the following table of the chief 
external symptoms may be found of use. 

This table aims to direct one to the discussion of general 
classes of disease. The identification of special individual dis- 
eases should be attempted only after reading over the chapters 
covering the general class involved. In general it should be 
kept in mind that this table is not intended to tell the readerf 
zvhat the disease he finds is, but solely to tell him zuhat parts of 
this book to read in any given case in order to make a diagnosis. 

Table of Bxternal Symptoms zvhich may be of Some Value in 
Differential Diagnosis. 

The numbers in brackets denote the pages to be consulted. 



Symptom. 



Abdomen swollen. 
Belching of gas — 



Breathing abnormal (1. e.), 
too rapid, too slow, wheez- 
ing, whistling, snoring or 
in any different from nor 
mal 



Choking 

Comb. pale. 



Comb first pale, but later 
dark 



Comb, very dark. 



Comb, yellow 

Comb, with white, powdery 
scurf. 



Constipation. 
Convulsions . 



Cough 

Cro}). enlarged and hard. 
Cro2:), enlarged and soft... 



Diarrhea 



Diseases which the symptom named may indicate. 

Peritonitis (72). Dropsy (73), White diarrhea (181). 

Inflammation of crop (34). 

Diseases of the respiratory system (85) , 
Arsenic poisoning (44) , Pericarditis (112) , 
Gapes (195), Air-sac mite (HO). 



Arsenic poisoning (44) . 

Tuberculosis (57), Dropsy (73), Air-sac mite (110), 
Infectious leukaemia (114), W hite diarrhea (181). 

Enteritis (39). 

Liver disease (47), Blackhead (53), 
Congestion of lungs, (107), Pneumonia (108). 

Liver diseases (47), Visceral gout (121). 

White comb (150). 



Simple constipation (41), Indigestion (42) , 
Inflammation of oviduct (165). 

Arsenic poisoning (44), Copper, lead or zinc poisoning (44). 
Epilepsy (119), •'Harvest-bug" (145). 

Diseases of the respiratory system (85). 

Crop bound (32) . 

Inflammation of crop (34), Enlarged crop (36), 
Gastritis (36). 

Diseases of the alimentarv tract (32), Arsenic poisoning (44). 
Copper, lead or zinc poisoning (44), Blackhead (53), 
Tuberculosis (57), Cholera (66), Roup (90). 
White diarrhea (181). 



Nostrils, discharge from. . 
Emaciation 



Diseases of the respiratory system (85) . 

Tuberculosis (57), Aspergillosis (104). Visceral gout (121) 
Mites (132). White diarrhea (181). 



24 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



Table of External Symptoms — Concluded. 

The numbers in brackets denote the pages to be consulted. 



Symptom. 



Diseases which the symptom named may indicate. 



Eye, expansion of pupil — 
Eye, sticky discharge from. 
Face, swollen 



Droppings, bright emerald 
green 



Fever, marked. 



Lameness. 



Legs, roughened, with 
scales raised 



Mouth, mucous discharge 
from 



Mouth, white, cheesy 
patches in 



Nausea and Vomitiyxg. 
Neck, bent backward. . . 



Neck, limp. 
Paralysis . 



Saliva, copious secretion. . 
Skin, putl'ed out in blisters 
Skin, scaly and incrusted.. 

Staggering 

Thirst, excessive 

Tongue, hard and dry 

Tumors on head 

Urates, yellow 

Vent, mass of inflamed tis 
sue projecting from 

Vent, skin inflamed 



Arsenic poisoning (44). 
Catarrh (87), Roup (90). 
Roup (90). 

Cholera (66). 

Peritonitis (72) , Aspergillosis (104) , Infectious leukaemia (114) , 
Inflammation of oviduct (165). 

Tuberculosis (57), Aspergillosis (104), Rheumatism (123). 
Scaly leg (135), Bumble foot (202). 

Scaly leg (135). 



Congestion of the lungs (107), Pneumonia (108), Gapes (195). 

Roup (90), Canker (103). 

Inflammation of the crop (34), 
Copper, lead or zinc poisoning (44). 

Strychnine poisoning (45), Congestion of the brain (119), 
Wryueck (123). 

Limberneck (123). 

Copper, lead or zinc poisoning (44). 
Strychnine poisoning (45), Apoplexy (118), 
Heat prostration (118). 

Arsenic poisoning (44). 

Emphysema (194). 

Body mange (144), Favus (147). 

Congestion of the brain (119), Leg weakness (192). 

Hypertrophy of the liver (50), Peritonitis (72), 
Aspergillosis (104), Tapeworms (76). 

Pip (102), Diseases of the respiratory system (85). 

Roup (90). Chicken pox (150). 

Cholera (66) . 

Prolapse of oviduct (167). 
Vent gleet (177). 



POST-MORTEM EXAMINATIONS. 

Whenever a bird dies from a cause not entirely clear to the 
poultryman a post-mortem examination should be made in order 
to learn, if possible, from the condition of the internal organs 
what it was that caused death. The poultryman should familiar- 
ize himself with the appearance of the internal organs in a nor- 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 25 

mal state of health, so that he may at once recognize any de- 
parture from these normal conditions. 

The following directions and general advice regarding the 
making up of autopsies is taken from the English poultry jour- 
nal "Poultry" : 

"How to make a post-mortem examination, so that these vari- 
ous organs can be seen and examined, and so that a general 
opinion can be formed as to their condition of health or other- 
wise. Let it be understood that a very large number of poultry 
which die are victims of some entirely simple complaint, such 
as enlargement of the liver, or tuberculosis in the lungs. These 
complaints are easily recognizable, and there is no reason at all 
why any farmer or amateur poultry keeper should not be able 
to form a general opinion as to whether his poultry are dying 
off from some such complaint as one or other of these. Take 
the dead bird and lay it on a wooden table or on a piece of strong 
board, breast uppermost. Spread out the wings and the legs, 
putting a small nail through the joint of each wing and through 
the center of each foot. It is not necessary for the bird to be 
entirely plucked ; it will be enough to pluck the breast, and when 
this has been done pinch up the skin at the point of the breast 
bone, and cut it straight through from the vent to the crop. 
Having done this, draw back the skin on both sides so as to leave 
the flesh fully exposed, and then with a sharp knife cut through 
the flesh on both sides of the breast bone, and with a strong, 
blunt pointed pair of scissors, cut out the center of the breast 
bone entirely, taking particular care in doing so not to injure 
the heart, as a flow of blood from the heart will interfere with 
subsequent operations. When this has been done the principal 
organs will be seen clearly exposed." 

"First of all examine the liver. To be perfectly healthy, it 
should be of a rich chocolate brown color, free from any specks, 
and free from any discoloration (although there are sometimes 
post-mortem discolorations at the edges, which are easily recog- 
nizable). If the liver contains any specks it is unhealthy, as 
it should not be what is known as pasty or rotten. Healthy and 
firm to the touch and of the proper color, is the general descrip- 
tion to apply to the liver. The heart should then be looked at, 
and it should also be quite firm, free from any excessive cover- 
ing of fat, and also quite free from little nodules of tubercu- 



26 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

losis. Another thing about the heart is that it should be even 
lobed — that is to say, it should not be distended on one side and 
empty on the other; if it be so, the probability is that the bird 
has died from heart failure, and supposing it is known that the 
bird did die suddenly, this can at once be accepted as the cause — 
syncope, failure of the heart's action, which always ends in very 
sudden death, the bird simply dropping down dead without any 
warning. The lungs, which will be seen on either side at the 
back of the heart, are spongy looking bodies of a pink color. 
If a piece of one of the lungs can be cut off and be placed in a 
bowl of water it should float, not sink, or it will be unhealthy. 
Always look at the lungs for tuberculosis, which is usually to be 
detected there,* and is indicated by little cheesy nodules in the 
substance of the lungs, which cannot possibly be mistaken ; some- 
times the lungs and the heart will all be eaten by these tuber- 
culous masses. If no disease has been found so far, proceed to 
examine the crop and the gullet, also the windpipe. With re- 
gard to the crop, it might almost be examined first if it is full 
of food, and apparently in a state of congestion, to see whether 
there be a stoppage in the opening from the crop to the pro- 
ventricle. The gullet and windpipe can also be examined to see 
if there is anything unhealthy about them. Similarly an exam- 
ination can then be made of the intestines, and in the case of a 
hen the egg organs can be carefully dissected to see whether 
there is a broken egg, or whether any egg substance has escaped 
into the cavity of the abdomen and set up inflammation." 

"There is no difliculty about making an examination of the 
skull, and the amateur with a little practice w^ll very easily be 
able to do this. The way to set about it is to start at one corner 
of the mouth, and with a pair of sharp pointed scissors cut 
around the skull to the other corner of the mouth; it will then 
be quite an easy matter to lift up the skull from the back, and 
the brain will be clearly seen. This should be perfectly clear,, 
and if there be any trace of a slight effusion of blood, it will be 
positive evidence of an apoplectic seizure, and will confirm the 
symptoms of apoplexy, which are delirium, resulting, after a few 
hours or a few days helplessness, in death. These, then, are 



* This is usually not the case (see below p. 62). This writer has 
probably mistaken aspergillosis lesions of the lungs for those of tuber- 
culosis. Note added by compiler. 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 2/ 

the principal points, and any amateur can make a simple matter- 
of-fact examination such as has been described, very often with 
considerable satisfaction to himself." 

In order to get the benefit of the descriptions given in this 
book of the post-mortem appearances of organs in various dis- 
eases, the poultryman should proceed as follows. If the liver, 
for example, of a dead bird appears to be abnormal, look up in 
the index of this book the entry ''Post-mortem appearance of." 
Under this will be found a heading 'iiver," followed by the page 
numbers 40, 47, 49 to 56, 61, 68, 113, 115, 121, 188, 194. 
This means that on each one of the pages listed will 
be found a description of the post-mortem condition of 
the liver in a bird dying of some particular disease. Similar 
entries are made for other organs. In this way the post-mortem 
examination may be made to aid directly and quickly in the 
diagnosis of disease. 



CHAPTER IV. 



Poultry Materia Medica. 

It is the purpose of this chapter to give an account of the 
drugs and remedies which the poultryman will find it well to 
be supplied with ; directions for making various solutions ; tables 
of weights and measures and the like. 

THE MEDICINE CHEST. 

The following drugs and medicines will be found useful to 
have at hand. 

Calomel (subchloride of mercury). — "This is a very useful 
alterative medicine for fowls, i grain pills frequently having a 
good effect on the liver. When given it should be followed in 
two hours by a dose of castor oil. Some authorities oppose the 
use of mercury in any form for poultry, but there have been 
numerous cases when it has produced good results." (Brad- 
shaw.) 

Cayenne. — ''Is considered to be an excellent liver stimulant 
when given in small quantities. In cases of colds it is also use- 
ful, and forms one of the ingredients in the spices so much used 
to stimulate winter laying." (Bradshaw.) 

Catechu. — 'Tn powder or tincture form, in combination with 
powdered chalk, is a good remedy for diarrhea. The average 
dose of powdered catechu is from 2 to 5 grains, and of the tinc- 
ture from 2 to 5 drops." (Bradshaw.) 

Castor oil. — "Although apparently paradoxical, this is one of 
the best remedies for diarrhea. The latter is frequently due to 
some foetid matter in the intestines; a dose of oil will usually 
remove this, and often diminish the diarrhea. It is also used 
in cases of crop-bound fowls. A teaspoonful poured down the 
throat, and the mass kneaded with the fingers, and then warm 
water poured down will soften the matter, and frequently effect 
a cure." (Bradshaw.) 

Bpsorn salts (magnesium sulphate). — 'Ts one of the simplest, 
cheapest, and most effective poultry-yard drugs. It is useful in 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 29 

liver disease, diarrhea, and many other corriplaints. Half a 
teaspoonful for a full-grown fowl is a standard dose. It can 
be mixed in the soft food, but is more effective by starving the 
fowl for a few hours, dissolving the salts in warm water, and 
pouring it down the bird's throat. Epsom salts always act best 
accompanied with a good quantity of water." (Bradshaw.) 

The following table of doses of Epsom salts for young birds 
has been worked out by Gage and Opperman : 



Age of Bird, 



1 to 5 weeks 10 grains 

5 to 10 weeks 7 '. 15 grains 

10 to 15 weeks 20 grains 

15 weeks to 6 months. 30 grains 

6 months to 1 year j 35 grains 

1 year and over 40-50 grains 



Amount per Bird 
IN Grains. 



How Administered. 



In feed 
In feed 
In feed 
Two teaspoonfvil of water 

to every 30, 40 or 50 

grains of salt. 



Cotton Seed Oil. — "Olive and salad oils are useful when hens 
are egg-bound, for diarrhea, and also for external use in dress- 
ing torn combs and other wounds. In eye troubles it takes the 
place of a simple lotion." (Bradshaw.) 

Bichloride of mercury, i to looo solution. — To make this the 
simplest way is to buy of the druggist bichloride of mercury 
tablets, and ask him to label the box to show how much water 
a tablet must be dissolved in to make a i to lOOO solution. If 
one desires to mix it up for himself ask the druggist to make 
up some I gram (15^ grain) powders of bichloride of mer- 
cury. Dissolve I of these powders in a quart of water. Put 
in enough laundry bluing so that the color will be deep blue. 
Then the solution, which is highly poisonous, will never be mis- 
taken for water. 

"i to 1000 bichloride" is a germicide and disinfectant for 
external use, cleansing wounds and the like. 

Medicines in Tablet Form. — One of the most convenient 
forms in which medicines may be administered is in tablets. 
Wholesale and mail-order drug houses carry extensive lines of 
these graded as to dosage. They may be administered to poul- 
try very easily and conveniently by holding the bird's mouth 
open with one hand and with the other thrusting the tablet far 
enough back in the throat so it will be swallowed. 

The following list of tablets will be found useful to the poul- 
tryman. They fairly well cover the medicines recommended in 



30 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

the body of this book. Any poultryman may get these either 
from his local druggist, or if he cannot furnish them, they can 
be purchased by mail at approximately the prices named from 
The Frank S. Betz Co., Hammond, Indiana. 

Price 
per I GOO 

Salicylic acid, 2^4 gr 70 

(For use in rheumatism.) 

Aconite root, i-io gr 50 

(For use in fevers.) 
Antiseptic tablets, Blue, Corrosive sublimate, 
7.3 grs. ; Ammonium chloride, y.y gr. 
Price, 35c. per 100. 

(For making i to 1000 bichloride solu- 
tion. One tablet dissolved in i pint of 
water gives a solution of that strength.) 

Bismuth subnitrate, i gr 80 

(For intestinal irritation.) 

Calomel, }i gr 40 

Iron, Quinine and Strychnine 80 

(For use as a tonic, dose 3 per day.) 
In administering tablets in the manner suggested care should 
be taken to see that they are swallowed, and not coughed up. 

AN ANTISEPTIC OINTMENT FOR USE ON CUTS AND WOUNDS OE 

AEE KINDS. 

The following ointment may be made up by the poultryman 
and will be found useful in the treatment of cuts, sores and 
wounds of all kinds of poultry and stock in general. 

Oil of origanum i oz. 

Cresol ^4 oz. 

Pine tar i oz. 

Resin i oz. 

Clean axle grease 8 oz. 

Melt the axle grease and resin and stir in the other ingredi- 
ents. Pour off in a tin box or can to cool. In making this, clean 
axle grease from a freshly opened can should be used. 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 3 1 

TABLES OF APOTHECARIES WEIGHTS AND MEASURES AND THEIR 
METRIC EQUIVALENTS. 

APOTHECARIES WEIGHTS. 

Pound Ounces (Troy) Drachms Scruples Grains Grams. 

1 = 12 = 96 = 288 = 5760 = 378.23 

1 = 8 = 24 = 480 = 31.10 

1 = 3 = 60 = 8.9 

1 = 20 = 1.30 

APOTHECARIES MEASURE. 

Gallon Pints Fluidounces Fluidrachms Minims Cub. cm 

1=8= 128 = 1024 = 61440 = 3785.00 

1 = 16 = 128 = 7680 = 473.11 

1 = 8 = 480 = 29.57 

1 = 60= 3.75 

COMMON MEASURE. 

A teacup is estimated to bold about 4 fluidounces. one gill. 

Altcineglass " " " "2 

Actable spoon " " " " | 

A teaspoon ' '^ I'fluidrachm. 



CHAPTER V. 



Diseases of the Alimentary Tract. 

The arrangement of the digestive organs in birds differs from 
that in other domestic animals in that the mastication of the 
food does not take place in the mouth. The food of birds, con- 
sisting mainly of grains and seeds, is swallowed whole into the 
crop. It remains here until it is completely softened by the 
juices secreted by this organ. ■ The food then passes into the 
stomach (proventriculus) where it is mixed with still other 
juices, and then into the gizzard. The muscular walls of the 
gizzard grind the softened food against the small pebbles (grit) 
which the bird picks up, until it becomes a paste. This paste is 
then passed into the intestines and mixed with the secretions 
from the liver, pancreas and the intestines themselves. The 
nutritive elements of the food are transferred through the intes- 
tinal walls, by means of the activity of the cells composing these 
walls, into the blood and are carried to various parts of the 
animal to be used in building up the tissues. 

In the wild state birds are forced to hunt for their own food. 
They go about gathering in a few seeds here and there but 
probably at no time is the crop overloaded. Under conditions 
of domestication the birds are fed only once or twice a day and 
thus the crop is often gorged with a day's supply of food. 
Further the lack of sufficient grit, lack of exercise and the feed- 
ing of rich, soft mashes cause the birds to be predisposed to- 
wards indigestion. Under these conditions poultry are subject 
to a large number of disorders of the digestive system. 

DISEASES OE THE CROP. 

Impacted Crop {Crop Bound). 

In general two immediate causes may be given for birds be- 
coming crop bound. ( i ) The thin muscular walls may be para- 
lyzed either through over-distention with dry grain or through 
some disease, as cholera and diphtheria. (2) The opening into 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 33 

the lower portion of the oesophagus may become clogged by long 
straws, feathers or other substances. In either case the crop 
fails to empty itself while the bird continues to eat until the 
crop is greatly distended and packed solid. 

Impacted crop is a common disease of poultry. A large 
number of things have been assigned as a cause for this trouble. 
It is probable that the real cause lies in low vitality due to im- 
proper feeding and indigestion. On this point Robinson says : 
"We say that the dry hay the fowl may take into the crop 
causes impaction, but the fact is that it is only in occasional 
instances that it does cause impaction. Far oftener the fowl 
eats dry hay or corn fodder till its crop is bulging, and is never 
seen to be at all the worse for it. I have seen this so often, 
that though an occasional case of impacted crop might properly 
be attributed directly to the overloading of the crop, the occur- 
rence of a number of such cases in a flock at about the same 
time, would suggest that the real cause was indigestion, or weak 
digestion. I have repeatedly given fowls, which all their lives 
had been handled to make and keep digestive organs in first 
class condition, all other conditions for developing cases of 
impacted crops, but have never been able to get a case that 
way." 

Treatment. — If a large number of crop bound birds occur in 
a flock, it should be taken as a sign that something is wrong in 
the management. Measures should be taken to correct errors 
in feeding and thus give the birds a more vigorous digestion. 
In such epidemics other evidences of indigestion are usually 
present and the particular treatment of the flock will depend 
largely on these other symptoms. In general the birds should 
not be fed too much at any one time and they should be encour- 
aged to take as much exercise as possible, and should have plenty 
of green food. 

When a crop bound bird is found it must be treated indi- 
vidually. Treatment in such individual cases is quite often suc- 
cessful. The profitableness of such treatment must be decided 
by every poultryman for himself. If the crop bound condition 
is discovered and treated at the beginning of the trouble the 
bird will usually recover quickly and may make a profitable 
fowl. On the other hand if the condition has become chronic 
the vitality of the bird is greatly lowered. In this latter case 



34 - POULTRY DISKASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

it may recover but it will be a long time before it will repay 
the owner for his trouble and feed. 

If swelled grain is the cause of the impaction the bird may 
often be successfully treated without an operation. In this case 
first give the bird a tablespoonful of castor oil. After allowing 
this a little time to work into the crop begin to knead the hard 
mass. After this mass has been softened hold the bird with 
head downward and attempt to work the grain out through the 
mouth. If unsuccessful in this or if the impaction is due to 
clogging with straw or other material it will be necessary to 
open the crop. 

The following method for this operation is given by Sanborn 
(Farm Poultrj^ Doctor) : ''If someone can hold the bird for 
you it will make the operation easier. Pluck out a few feathers 
and then cut through the skin over the crop a line about i inch 
long. This cut should be in the median line of the body. Then 
make an incision ^ of an inch long through the crop. The 
distention of the crop will cause the opening to gape, and the 
mass will be in plain sight. With toothpicks, blunt pointed scis- 
sors, tweezers, or similar tools, take out the contents of the crop. 
This done run the finger into the crop and make sure that there 
is nothing remaining to obstruct the outlet to the organ. When 
sure all is right, take 3 or 4 stitches in the opening in the crop, 
making each stitch by itself and tying a knot that will not slip. 
Then do the same thing to the cut in the skin. For stitches use 
white silk (or if nothing better can be obtained) common cotton 
thread, number 60. Keep the bird by itself for a week, feeding 
soft food." 

The above operation is not a difficult one and is usually suc- 
cessful. Care should be exercised to have the hands and instru- 
ments thoroughly clean. After the contents of the crop have 
been removed the wound and the empty crop itself should be 
thoroughly washed out with clean, warm (108° to 110° F.) 
water. The edges of the skin wound should be well greased 
with vaseline. It is well to feed the bird only milk for the first 
day or two. 

Inflammation of the Crop. 
Inflammation or catarrh of the crop usually accompanies more 
or less general disturbances of the digestive system. As a result 
of the irritated condition of the mucous membrane the functions 



POUI.TRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 35 

of the crop are disturbed or arrested. It is said to be caused 
by eating indigestible, decayed, or poisonous food. "The foods 
and substances speciahy mentioned as causing inflammation of 
the crop are : Decomposed meats and putrid foods of any kind, 
unslaked lime, paint skins, rat poison, excessive use of condi- 
ments and spices, milled by-products containing too large pro- 
portions of hulls or other indigestible fibrous particles. Salmon 
notes that it may result from the presence of worms in the crop, 
and that it occurs as a complication with thrush, diphtheria, and 
cholera. It also occurs frequently with gastritis." (Robm- 
son.) 

Diagnosis. — "The most prominent symptom is distention of 
the crop, and on examination the swelling is found to be soft 
and due to accumulated liquid or gas, mixed with more or less 
food. The birds are dull, indisposed to move, and there is 
belching of gas, loss of appetite and weakness. Sometimes there 
is nausea and the affected bird attempts to vomit. Pressure 
upon the crop causes the expulsion through the mouth of liquid 
and gas having an offensive odor due to fermentation." (Sal- 
mon.) 

Treatment. — The first step in the treatment of this disease is 
to empty the crop as completely as possible. This can be done 
by holding the bird head downward and carefully pressing and 
kneading the crop. After most of the contents have been ex- 
pelled in this way give the bird several spoonsful of lukewarm 
water and then empty the crop as before. Give a slight purga- 
tive such as a small teaspoonful of castor oil. The bird should 
be kept without food for 12 to 20 hours and then fed sparingly 
on soft, easily digested material. Salmon recommends giving 
2 grains of subnitrate of bismuth and ^ grain of bicarbonate of 
soda in a teaspoonful of water to relieve irritation and to correct 
acidity. Salicylic acid, i grain to an ounce of water, is also recom- 
mended. The dose is 2 to 3 teaspoonfuls. Hill recommends 
the feeding of mucilaginous fluids such as barley-water, thin 
solution of gum, etc. If the inflammation is due to eating poi- 
sons antidotes as given farther on (Chapter VI) should be used. 

If inflammation of the crop is at all general throughout the 
flock an effort should be made to remove the cause. It is well 
to change the feed and give the birds more exercise. The addi- 
tion of fine charcoal (small chick size) to the mash will of en be 
of service, as the birds eat more of it in this way than when the 
charcoal is in a box by itself. 



36 POUI.TRY DISKASES AND THKIR TREATMENT. 

Enlarged Crop. 

''The crop sometimes becomes very much enlarged and promi- 
nent, but hanging loosely, not bulging and hard, as in impaction 
of the crop. This form of permanent enlargement and displace- 
ment is called enlarged crop, slack crop, or pendulous crop. It 
may exist with little inconvenience and detriment to the fowl." 
(Robinson.) 

According to Sanborn the cause of this is irregular feeding 
resulting in overloading. Robinson, however, says that while 
''this may be the cause in a great many cases, yet it can hardly 
be the sole cause, for cases of slack crop are not infrequently 
found in fowls that have been well and regularly fed. If a 
fowl is fed heavily, and from any cause (as indigestion) the 
crop remains full and distended too long, though this condition 
may in time be relieved in the natural way without interference 
of the keeper, the effect on the crop is the same as if the over- 
loading had occurred because of irregular feeding. If this con- 
dition is repeated several times the walls of the crop become in 
some degree permanently distended." 

An enlarged crop and an enlarged or "baggy" abdomen are 
frequently associated in the same bird. These are probably due 
to too heavy feeding without sufficient intervals between meals 
and without sufficient exercise. 

Treatment. — As stated above, a "baggy" crop often gives little 
or no apparent inconvenience to the fowl. In the case of a very 
valuable bird it might be worth while to operate. Sanborn states 
that this defect can be remedied by cutting out of the enlarged 
portion of the crop a diamond or oval shaped piece of tissue 
about 2 inches long and i inch wide. The edges should be 
sewed together and treated as directed for impacted crop. (Cf. 
p. 34). The general surgical methods described in the chapter 
on Poultry Surgery (Chapter XX) should be followed. 

DISEASES OE THE STOMACH (PROVENTRICUEUS) . 

Inflammation of the Stomach — Gastritis. 

The stomach or proventriculus in fowls is a rather small or- 
gan. It is a thick, glandular walled section of the alimentary 
canal lying between the crop and the gizzard. Inflammation of 
this organ is usually associated with a similar disturbance of the 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 37 

crop. In a few cases there appears to be inflammation of the 
stomach alone. Diagnosis in this case is very difficult. 

The cause of gastritis is usually regarded as the same as that 
of inflamation of the crop (cf. p. 34). 

Diagnosis. — In general the symptoms are very similar to those 
in cases of inflamation of the crop (see p. 34). The birds 
present the general appearance of being sick, viz., loss of appe- 
tite, indisposition to move and roughness of plumage. Con- 
stipation quite often accompanies gastritis. However, if the 
inflammation extends to the intestines there may be diarrhea. 

Treatment. — "If the disease is identified in its early stages, 
seek for its cause and endeavor to overcome it by removing the 
cause. Change the ration and give more easily digested food 
with some meat. Feed regularly, often, and a small quantity 
at a time. Give some cooked food with barley water or milk 
for drink, or put 20 grains of bicarbonate of soda to a quart of 
drinking water. In severe cases give 2 grains of subnitrate of 
bismuth 3 times a day in a teaspoonful of water. Counteract 
constipation with Epsom salts (20 grains) or castor oil (one 
teaspoonful) once a day as long as may be necessary." (Sal- 
mon.) 

"Give rice water for drink, soft mash made with the water 
in which clover hay has been cooked. Arsenite of copper, j/4 
grain to each quart of the rice water (drink) will do for medi- 
cinal treatment." (Sanborn.) 

As Robinson points out the important thing in treating this 
disease is to change the food in so far at least as to remove the 
cause of the trouble.. Medical treatment without the removal 
of the original cause will be of little avail. The addition of fine 
(chick size) charcoal to the mash and the generous use of good 
green food are recommended. 

DISEASES OE THE INTESTINES. 

Simple Diarrhea. 

In many fowls a condition of mild diarrhea is chronic through- 
out the life time of the bird. Again birds often acquire a slight 
diarrhea which will last for a longer or shorter time, but never 
becoming severe. In either of these cases the bird shows no 
symptoms of disease other than the watery droppings. No 
doubt such attacks are in some degree detrimental to the best 



38 POUIvTRY DISEASES AND THFJR TRKATMKNT. 

health of the bird. In most cases of this simple diarrhea the 
bird will recover without any treatment. Nevertheless the care- 
ful poultryman will watch his dropping boards for signs of 
''looseness." When such are found in any quantity the methods 
of feeding and housing should be carefully examined to see if 
the cause does not lie in them. 

Concerning the normal droppings of fowls, Robinson says : 
"Normally the droppings of fowls are rather dry, retain the 
shape in which they are voided, and may readily be removed, 
leaving the spot on which they had fallen either slightly stained, 
or not at all." 

Further, about 1-3 of the normal droppings consists of a whit- 
ish substance. This is the uric acid and urates excreted by the 
kidneys and is removed from the' cloaca along with the feces. 

''Without marked departure from the normal, droppings may 
be wet — watery — with a tendency to flatten on the surface on 
which they rest. On boards they moisten the surface for some 
distance around them. * * * It is perhaps most appro- 
priately described as "looseness." It is not diarrhea, though 
fowls having it are probably more susceptible to intestinal dis- 
eases than others. Mere looseness of the bowels is not accom- 
panied by any offensive odor. 

"When the excrement becomes soft and pasty or liquid in 
consistency and whitish, yellowish, greenish or brownish in 
color, and has a more or less marked ofifensive odor, the con- 
dition is properly described as diarrhea. The evacuations in 
diarrhea are often of such consistency that the water in them 
is not readily taken up by absorbents with which they come in 
contact, and they are decidedly nasty, not only adhering to 
utensils used in removing them, and making ordinary cleaning 
difficult, but soiling the feathers of the fowls and sticking to 
roosts, nests and feed troughs." (Robinson.) 

Diarrhea may result simply from an upsetting of the digestive 
organs due to improper feeding or it may be a symptom of some 
more serious disease. Simple diarrhea may arise from the pres- 
ence of indigestible matter in the alimentary canal, it may be 
due to exposure to heavy rains or to draughts in the roosting 
house. In the latter cases a cold develops which affects the 
bowels rather than the head and lungs. Diarrhea from colds 
occurs much more frequently than is generally supposed. This 



POUI.TRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 39 

form of diarrhea can often be recognized by the greater amount 
of frothy mucus in the excrement. Young stock are much more 
susceptible to diarrhea from colds than are adult birds. 

Among other common causes of simple diarrhea may be men- 
tioned soured or decomposing food, too much green food at 
irregular times, too free use of animal food, allowing the birds 
access to water which has become soiled with excrement and 
allowed to stand in the hot sun until about putrid. Whatever 
may be the inducing factor the immediate cause is excessive 
bacterial fermentation in the alimentary canal. 

Treatment — Simple diarrhea will usually require no treatment 
other than removing the original cause. This latter is by far the 
more important thing to be done. If neglected the condition 
may become chronic and may result in more serious disturbances 
of the alimentary system. It is often beneficial to replace part 
of the bran in the mash with middlings or low grade flour. 
Where in addition medical treatment seems desirable the first 
thing to do is to remove the fermenting material from the intes- 
tinal canal. This can be done with Epsom salts, using a small 
half teaspoonful to each bird. This should be dissolved in water 
and used to mix the mash. If more convenient a teaspoonful 
of castor oil may be given each bird. If the diarrhea is per- 
sistent Hill recommends 3 to 6 drops of chlorodyne as an unfail- 



Bnteritis — Dysentery. 

For practical purposes we may associate most of the severer 
forms of diarrhea with the above names. Simple diarrhea was 
defined as either a temporary or chronic affection of the intes- 
tines from which the bird appeared to suffer but little. Prac- 
tically its only symptom is the watery or discolored discharge. 
Under the names of enteritis, dysentery or severe diarrhea there 
are listed several of the more serious infections of the intestines. 
From the medical standpoint enteritis is the name given to affec- 
tions of the small intestines while dysentery is applied to the 
disease in the large intestine. The latter is usually accompanied 
by mucous and bloody discharges. In the diseases of poultry, 
however, it is hardly necessary for anyone other than a patholo- 
gist to distinguish betwen these different forms. 

Etiology. — A variety of causes are responsible for these more 
acute forms of intestinal trouble. It may be a bacterial infec- 



40 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

tion coming from filthy conditions. Foul drinking water, putrid 
meat or decaying food of any sort may be predisposing causes. 
Toxic enteritis or poisoning is caused by the birds eating such 
things as paint skins, lye, unslaked lime, salt, ergot of rye, 
arsenic and copper (in spraying mixtures) (cf. p. 44). Fur- 
ther simple diarrhea may develop into the more acute form. 
This latter is due to improper food, water or housing, and is 
probably closely associated with bacterial enteritis. Various in- 
testinal parasites may cause severe diarrhea. 

Diagnosis. — It is often very difficult to distinguish between 
the different infections of the intestines in the living birds. 
Woods (Reliable Poultry Journal) gives the following symp- 
toms of enteritis: "The affected bird is inactive and dumpish. 
The comb is at first pale and limp, and later becomes dark and 
purplish. There is an abundant dark or greenish diarrhea. 
Diarrhea may become bloody. The bird appears sleepy and 
unwilling to walk around. The bird may be sick a week or 
several weeks before death takes place. Some birds recover 
without treatment. The appetite may be voracious, or the birds 
may refuse to take food. The crop may be full of food, or 
may contain only a little slimy fluid. When the bird dies, the 
comb is always dark. Often the bird may appear dumpish and 
sleepy, and show a bad diarrhea; the owner, picking the bird 
up to examine it, finds it has lost weight ; holding it head down- 
ward, a stringy, dirty liquid runs from the mouth, and death of 
the bird soon follows. In such cases, the bird has been sick 
several weeks before it was noticed. Examination of the body 
after death shows the liver enlarged or shrunken, according to 
the duration of the disease. If of long duration the liver is 
shrunken. The spleen is usually enlarged. The intestines are 
inflamed and are full of mucus." 

"The evacuations may show any or all of the color conditions 
commonly observed in cases of severe diarrhea, watery, mixed 
watery and solid, whitish, greenish, bluish green, brown, red, 
bloody. Particular colors or conditions may represent the de- 
gree to which different organs are affected, or indicate to an 
experienced eye the progress of the disease, but to the layman 
they have no special significance." (Robinson.) 

Treatment. — If possible the cause of the trouble should be 
ascertained and removed. This is by all means the first and 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 4I 

most important step to take. It is useless to spend valuable 
time in doctoring sick birds while the conditions which gave 
rise to the trouble are still present. In bacterial enteritis sick 
birds should be removed from the flock as soon as noticed. 
Houses and runs should be cleaned up and disinfected. Drink- 
ing vessels and food troughs should be scalded daily. Potas- 
sium permanganate should be used in the drinking water (cf. 
p. 16). Mix powdered charcoal with the mash. Feed less bran 
and more middlings in the mash. Do not feed too heavily. 

After attending to the above hygienic measures the birds 
should be given a good physic. A teaspoonful of Epsom salts 
to each fowl, dissolved in water and mixed in the mash, is the 
most convenient way of treating a large number of birds. For 
medical treatment Salmon recommends one of the following : 

''Subnitrate of bismuth, 3 grains ; powdered cinnamon or 
cloves, I grain ; powdered willow charcoal, 3 grains. Give twice 
a day mixed with food or made into pills with flour and water. 

"Subnitrate of bismuth, 3 grains ; bicarbonate of soda, i grain ; 
powdered cinchona bark, 2 grains ; mix and give 3 times a day 
in a paste made with rice flour. When diarrhea is arrested, 
bismuth and soda are no longer needed. Give as a tonic : Pow- 
dered fennel, anise, coriander, and cinchona — each 30 grains ; 
powdered gentian and ginger each i dram, powdered sulphate 
of iron, 15 grains. Mix and give in the feed so that each fowl 
will get 2 to 14 grains twice a day." 

Constipation. 

Constipation occurs in adult fowls far less often than diarrhea. 
It frequently passes unnoticed unless very severe. This trouble 
is much more common in young stock than in grown birds. In 
adult fowls it often occurs in connection with indigestion, gas- 
tritis, or peritonitis. "A not infrequent cause is obstruction of 
the vent by accumulations of excrement on the feathers about 
it This is especially apt to occur following looseness of the 
bowels in fowls, which do not roost. Intestinal worms also may 
cause constipation by accumulating until their mass blocks the 
passage." (Robinson.) 

Lack of exercise, or lack of green food are also occasional 
causes of constipation. 



42 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

The symptoms are painful and ineffective efforts to evacuate 
the bowels. In the worst cases the vent becomes completely 
plugged with dry, hard feces. The birds appear dull, listless 
and without appetite. 

Treatment. — ''Adult fowls having constipation without ob- 
struction of the intestines, that is merely difficult movements, 
should not require any treatment further than in correcting con- 
ditions and diet. When the passage is obstructed the treatment 
is according to the location of the obstruction. If it is at the 
vent with hard accumulation about the vent as well as in the 
intestine, the external accumulation must be removed first. This 
is accomplished by soaking in warm water, which loosens the 
attachment of the mass to the skin, and separates it enough to 
allow clipping the feathers about the vent to which the mass 
adheres. If the obstruction has filled the lower part of the in- 
testine, there must be more soaking with warm water or soften- 
ing with olive or sweet oil. Oil is applied between the accumu- 
lated excrement and the skin by using a small syringe or an oil 
can with very small nozzle. The process is a tedious one, and 
where the poultryman's time is valuable is unprofitable except 
in cases of valuable birds." 

''When the obstruction cannot be reached in this way purga- 
tives must be given. Those usually recommended for fowls, 
are castor oil, Epsom salts, and calomel." (Robinson.) 

INDIGESTION. 

Birds frequently suffer from disorders of the digestive system 
which are not easily classified under any of the diseases so far 
treated. Simple indigestion or dyspepsia most frequently re- 
sults from overfeeding and the feeding of ground grains and 
meat without sufficient green food, are some of the causes usu- 
ally given. 

Symptoms. — The birds are dull and listless. They are in- 
clined to sit on the roosts, and usually have but little appetite. 
Occasionally birds suffering from indigestion have an abnormal 
appetite and will eat ravenously quantities of foods which fur- 
nish but little nourishment, e. g., grit. Indigestion is often ac- 
companied by either constipation or diarrhea. In the latter case 
the symptoms are similar to those described under simple diar- 
rhea (p. 37). 



POUIvTRY DISKASe:S AND THEIR TREATMENT. 43 

Treatment. — In treating indigestion it is important to observe 
the general rules of hygiene (cf. Chapter II). The house should 
be clean and as free from dust as possible. Sunshine should be 
able to reach every corner of the pens. The water dishes should 
be kept thoroughly clean and the supply of water should be kept 
pure and fresh. Use potassium permanganate in the drinking 
water as directed on p. i6. Use well balanced rations and feed 
at regular hours. Put fine (chick size) charcoal into the mash 
in considerable quantity. Enough should be used to make the 
mash decidedly black. This is a very important measure for 
the treatment of indigestion. Give the birds plenty of exer- 
cise. A small amount of a good stock tonic may help to bring 
the birds back into proper vigor. The following formula (from 
Me. Agr. Expt. Stat. Ann. Rpt. 1896) has frequently been used 
with good success. 

Pulverized Gentian i lb. 

Pulverized Ginger %. lb. 

Pulverized Saltpeter ^ lb. 

Pulverized Iron Sulphate ^ lb. 

These substances can be procured from any drug store and 
mixed by the poultryman. Use 2 to 3 tablespoonsful of the 
tonic to 10 quarts of dry mash. 

Dr. N. W. Sanborn (Reliable Poultry Remedies) recommends 
the following treatment for indigestion: "If for i week at the 
beginning of the improved care you will add i teaspoonful of 
sulphate of magnesia to every quart of drinking water, and fol- 
low this for 2 weeks with ^^ of a grain of strychnine to each 
quart of water, you will hasten the time when the birdc will be 
well." 



CHAPTER VI. 



Poisons. 



Poultry on free range about farms and especially on small 
city lots often obtain poisonous substances. Most of the poisons 
obtained by fowls are the so-called mineral poisons. The chief 
symptom of poisoning by these substances is acute inflammation 
of the digestive tract. The narcotic or vegetable poisons on the 
other hand cause severe congestion of the blood vessels in the 
spinal cord and brain. 

Among the principal poisons likely to affect poultry may be 
mentioned the following: 

Common Salt, Nitrate of Soda, Concentrated Lyes. — Com- 
mon salt is most frequently obtained in excessive amount from 
eating salt meat or fish. Ziirn says that 15-30 (^ to i oz.) 
grams of common salt will kill a healthy hen in from 8 to 12 
hours. Nitrate of soda is used as a fertilizer and is eaten by 
hens along with worms, etc., which they scratch up. Lye is 
obtained only when carelessly left about the grounds. The 
treatment for such poisons according to Salmon is to give ''abun- 
dant mucilaginous drinks such as infusion of flaxseed, together 
with stimulants, strong coffee and brandy being particularly use- 
ful." 

Arsenic may be obtained either from rat poison or from vari- 
ous arsenical sprays used to kill insects. Copper is used in such 
spraying mixtures as Bordeaux. Where spraying has been done 
properly there should be no danger of the birds getting enough 
of the poison to injure them. Sometimes, however, the vessels 
containing the mixtures are emptied within range of the fowls 
or the substances are handled carelessly in other ways. 

The symptoms of arsenic poisoning are given by Beeck (Die 
Federviehzucht 1908, p. 828) as follows : ''Secretion of large 
quantities of saliva, choking, hiccoughing, great anxiety and 
nervousness, little or no appetite, thin, often bloody feces, slow 
and difficult breathing, unsteady walk, trembling and convul- 
sions, expansion of the pupils. Death ordinarily occurs in a 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 45 

very short time." Treatment should be with sulphate of iron, 
calcined magnesia, or large quantities of milk. Salmon also 
recommends white of egg and flaxseed mucilage. 

The special symptoms of copper poisoning are vomiting and 
diarrhea, the copper giving a blue or green color to the vomited 
matter and the feces. Evidence of violent pain may follow with 
collapse, convulsions or paralysis. The circulation and respira- 
tion are weak. Usually fatal in a few hours. Large quantities 
of milk, white of egg, mucilage, and sugar water are recom- 
mended. 

Lead and sine poisoning occur chiefly from eating paint skins. 
The symptoms so far as they have been observed in poultry do 
not differ greatly from those seen in copper poisoning. The 
treatment recommended by Salmon is the same as for copper. 
With lead poisoning the sulphates of soda, potash or magnesia 
are recommended with the object of forming insoluble sulphate 
of lead. 

Phosphorus may be obtained from rat poisons or from heads 
of matches. If large quantities of phosphorus are eaten by the 
bird severe inflammation of the stomach and intestine occurs 
and death results in from i to 2 hours. If only a small quan- 
tity is eaten the symptoms, according to Beeck, are weakness, 
languor, ruffled feathers, lack of appetite. 

Strychnine is usually obtained by poultry from rat poisons. 
The distinctive symptoms here, according to Beeck, is the twist- 
ing of the spinal column and paralysis. The neck is twisted 
backward so that the head is often held over the rump. The 
treatment recommended by Beeck is to give "inhalations of 
chloroform or internally i to 3 grains of chloral hydrate dis- 
solved in 2 tablespoonsful of water. The amount to be given 
depends on the size of the bird. 

Brgot of Rye is one of the vegetable poisons which sometimes 
causes serious trouble among poultry. This is especially true 
in European countries. In this country so little rye is raised and 
fed to poultry that there is little chance for poisoning. The 
cause of the poisoning is a fungus which attacks the rye plants. 
The symptoms of ergot poisoning are trembling, intoxication, 
great weakness and gangrene of the comb, beak and tongue. 
The treatment is to give strong stimulants such as ''brandy, 
coffee, camphor or quinine." 



46 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

Fowls are occasionally injured by eating the leaves of poison- 
ous plants. The sense of taste, however, protects the birds in 
most cases. Mr. H. B. Green (Illus. Poultry Record, Vol. I, 
p. 689) says in this connection: "Woodlands and fields abound 
in poisonous plants, and yet it is seldom, except in the case of 
birds that have been starved of green food and have become 
ravenous for it, that fowls ever succumb to vegetable poisons 
as thus obtained. Protection apparently lies in the fact that 
undesirable plants have repulsive flavors. Especially in sub- 
urban poultry keeping, danger arises when flower borders are 
weeded, seedlings thinned out, and plant rubbish sw^ept up, if 
the resulting collection is thoughtlessly given to fowls in con- 
fined runs. Such birds are generally always ready for green 
food in any form and in their eagerness to satiate the craving 
the bad is often taken in with the good." 

TREATMENT FOR POISONS IN GENERAL. 

The above paragraphs have dealt with poisons rather more 
fully than is usual in treatises on poultry diseases. In the great 
majority of cases a poisoned bird is not discovered until too late 
for treatment. Even if found in time it is usually not worth 
the poultryman's time to treat individual birds. The symptoms 
of the different poisons have been given in some detail with the 
hope Uiat they may enable the poultryman to distinguish the 
kind of poisoning which they may encounter and may thus be 
able to remove the source of the trouble before other birds are 
affected. 



CHAPTER VII. 



Diseases of the Liver. 

"The annual losses of poultry due to liver trouble in various 
forms are numerous. These diseases seem to occur chiefly 
among adult fowls, and to be more prevalent in the latter part 
of the winter and through the spring. The reasons for their 
frequency then are easily found. The common forms of liver 
trouble result from improper feeding and lack of exercise. These 
causes operate most extensively during the winter, and they 
usually operate slowly, and the symptoms of liver troubles are 
generally obscure and not recognized until a post-mortem of 
fowls dying without special outward symptoms shows a dis- 
eased condition of the liver. Hence liver trouble may become 
general and reach advanced stages in a flock before their pres- 
ence is suspected. Meantime, the conditions which cause them 
may be continued, the owner of a flock not infrequently sup- 
posing that the absence of sickness in it contradicts the teachings 
of those who advise methods designed to preserve health, while 
as a matter of fact many of his fowls are in a quite advanced 
stage of some liver complaint." ' (Robinson.) 

A large number of diseases of the liver are described by 
writers on this subject. In the great majority of these diseases 
there are no external symptoms by which one can be told from 
another. The most common diseases which afifect the liver may, 
for the moment, be divided into two rough classes which it is 
highly important for the poultryman to distinguish. These again 
can only be distinguished in dead birds, but the occurrence of 
cases of either kind in any number gives the poultryman a clue 
as to what the trouble may be and a chance to correct it. In the 
first of these two classes a post-mortem examination shows the 
liver covered with nodules of a cheesy-like appearance when 
opened. These nodules occur not only in the liver but also in the 
spleen, intestine and other organs and sometimes in these latter 
regions without affecting the liver at all. With such symptoms 



48 POULTRY DISE:ASKS AND THKIR TRE:aTMKNT. 

we may be fairly certain that the trouble is tuberculosis and for 
a further discussion of this the reader is referred to Chapter 
VIIL 

In the second class of these diseases the liver shows great 
enlargement and this is often accompanied or followed by fatty 
degeneration. This hypertrophy of the liver is what is gen- 
erally spoken of by poultrymen as ''liver disease." "Liver dis- 
ease" as popularly interpreted includes a number of different 
diseases distinguished by the pathologist. Of these the ones 
most commonly treated in the diseases of poultry are Conges- 
tion of the Liver, Inflammation of the Liver, Atrophy of the 
Liver, Hypertrophy or Enlargement of the Liver, Fatty Degen- 
eration of the Liver and Jaundice. 

The diagnosis of these different diseases is based entirely on 
the post-mortem appearances. In no one of them are there any 
outward symptoms which distinguish it from the others. "Vale 
says it is impossible for the most scientific observer to diagnose 
either inflammation or congestion of the liver with positive cer- 
tainty. The symptoms are much the same and outwardly are 
the general symptoms of disease." (Robinson.) 

Further not only the symptoms but also the causes and the 
treatments of these several diseases are essentially the same. 
The names of the diseases themselves indicate in a general way 
the post-mortem appearances. 

For these reasons it seems best to give a brief discussion of 
the general causes of "liver disease" and the usual treatment. 
This will be followed by a brief account of each disease and its 
special symptoms and treatment, if any. 

Cause of Liver Disease. — Lack of exercise and overfeeding, 
especially with rich albuminous foods, are the most common 
causes of diseases of the liver. In addition to these Salmon 
mentions the obstruction of the circulation of the blood by dis- 
ease of the heart and lungs. Sanborn says that congestion of 
the liver may be caused by any disease of the crop, gizzard or 
bowels that obstructs the circulation of the blood. Robinson 
says : "By far the larger proportion of the cases of liver trouble 
coming to my notice are accounted for by bad feeding con- 
ditions." 

Diagnosis of Liver Disease. — There are no special external 
symptoms. Sanborn mentions as early symptoms : "Rough plu- 
mage, watery diarrhea, first brownish, then yellow ; lack of appe- 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 49 

tite and indisposition to move. The comb may be purplish at 
first, becoming dark and then quite black." These, however, 
are all merely symptoms of disease in general that might apply 
to any one of a dozen or more ailments. The only certain 
method of recognizing the disease is by post-mortem examina- 
tion. Every poultryman should be familiar enough with the 
normal appearance of the more important internal organs of a 
fowl to recognize abnormal appearances. In general, when 
post-mortem examination shows the liver larger or smaller than 
normal or congested wnth blood or marbled or spotted, we may 
assume that the bird probably had some form of liver disease. 
Of course, a diseased condition of the liver is often associated 
with other diseases, especially of the alimentary canal. Other 
organs should be examined in all cases to see if they are normal. 
Special care should be taken to distinguish tuberculosis from 
other diseased conditions of the liver and intestines. 

Treatment. — Since it is not possible to recognize diseases of 
the liver by external symptoms, the treatment of individual birds 
is out of the question. If, however, post-mortem examinations 
show that a number of the birds are dying with liver trouble 
it is necessary to take some remedial measures regarding the 
entire flock. In this connection Robinson gives the following 
remarks and advice : 

Just as soon as it is suspected that there is liver trouble in 
the flock one or more indisposed birds should be killed and 
examined. If examination confirms the suspicion prompt meas- 
ures should be taken to counteract bad tendencies. These should 
look first to good diet. Make the mash, if mash is used, light 
and bulky ; feed green and vegetable foods liberally ; compel ex- 
ercise in scratching for food. Then get the fowls out a little 
every day, and if sanitary conditions in the house are at all 
objectionable correct them. When the conditions to which a 
flock has been subjected are such that a number of bad cases of 
liver trouble develop, it cannot be expected that corrective meas- 
ures will arrest development and restore to health in every case. 
On the contrary, a few cases may develop in spite of remedial 
measures, and the fowls exposed to the disease are likely to give 
a much larger proportion of cases of sickness of various kinds 
afterwards than fowls that as a flock had always been healthy. 



50 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

This being the case, it is generally good policy to dispose of a 
flock that has been through such an experience as this as soon 
as it can be done to advantage, and replace with always healthy 
stock." 

With regard to the special diseases already mentioned the one 
most commonly met with on intensive plants at least is 

Hypertrophy, or Bnlargcment of the Liver. 

The cause of this trouble is chiefly concerned with food. In 
our climate it occurs most frequently towards the end of the 
winter. The birds have been confined to their houses most or 
all of the winter months. Very often they are overcrowded. 
The rich winter ration is continued after the weather begins to 
get warm and less heating food is needed. This combined with 
too little exercise and not enough green food favor indigestion 
and the accompanying sluggish action of gizzard and intestines. 
These are the immediate causes of trouble with the liver. It is 
said that feeding too much corn and barley is also responsible 
for much liver trouble. 

Symptoms. — Mr. H. B. Green, M. R. C. S., gives the follow- 
ing symptoms of hypertrophy of the liver. He believes this to 
be only a stage in the fatty degeneration of this organ. (Illus- 
trated Poultry Record 1909, p. 691.) "The first sign that a fowl 
is tending towards fatty disease of the liver is increase in weight. 
The comb wattles and face remain a bright red or take on a dull 
bluish tinge from congestion. This sign of sluggish circulation 
tells of full blood vessels, and explains how it is that apoplexy 
so frequently supervenes at this period. The excrement is an 
important symptom to note. It is generally at first semi-liquid, 
of a dark yellow color, and evacuations are frequent. Thirst 
is noticeable and a large quantity of water is drunk, especially 
after feeding. The appetite remains good, although the bird is 
capricious in what it eats. A post-mortem examination of a 
fowl in this phase of the disease will show a liver considerably 
enlarged, of a deep red color, engorged with blood, shining and 
greasy as though it had been soaked in oil, but fairly firm under 
the knife. The intestines are laden with masses of fat, so also 
are the mesentery — or as it is termed by butchers, 'the leaf,' — 
the ovary and oviduct." 

In the next stage "Diarrhoea increases, the excrement being 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 5 1 

perhaps bloodstained or blackened by congealed clots ; the face, 
comb and wattles become a darker hue or if jaundice supervenes 
they may be pale or tinged with yellow bile; more fat is laid on 
internally and the liver will prove to be greatly enlarged. So 
large may this become by the deposit of fat globules between and 
in the substance of its cells that on one occasion I have removed 
from an Orpington cock a liver that turned the scale at a pound 
and a half. This stage is seldom passed and death usually takes 
place from syncope, or an accidental rupture of the softened 
liver." 

Treatment.— Qr^^n says further : 'Tart of the treatment con- 
sists of a plentiful allowance of green food. Nothing in this 
way is better than freshly gathered dandelion leaves when pro- 
curable, for the taraxacum they contain is a valuable liver stim- 
ulant. It is not generally known that the sliced roots of the 
plants can be steeped m boiling water to make an infusion 
equally effective when the leaves are no longer obtainable. The 
roots should be gathered and stored in dry boxes. The infu- 
sion is conveniently mixed with the morning soft food and is 
always beneficial to birds in confinement as an occasional liver 
tonic." 

Fatty Degeneration. 

As noted in the above paragraphs. Green regards this disease 
as a later stage in the hypertrophy of the liver. Salmon, on the 
other hand, believes it to be a quite different disease. The latter 
author says: "On post-mortem examination the liver is found 
shrunken, hardened and marbled or spotted with areas of gray- 
ish or yellowish tissue. A microscopic examination shows the 
liver cells to contain droplets of fat and the liver tissue degen- 
erated and largely replaced by yellow fat globules. 

As the disease is not recognized during life, treatment is out 
of the question. If a number of cases occur in the same flock, 
give greater variety of food and a run on the grass. In addi- 
tion, bicarbonate of soda may be given in the drinking water to 
the amount of i or 2 grains a day for each bird." 



52 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

Atrophy or IVasting of the Liver. 

This is very similar in many respects to the disease described 
by Salmon as fatty degeneration and probably arises from the 
same cause, i. e., lack of variety in the food, especially lack of 
green food. 

Symptoms. — Robinson says : "There are no special external 
symptoms. An examination of the fowl after death shows the 
liver shrunken and somewhat granular and sometimes of a 
yellowish cast." 

Treatment. — See Salmon's treatment of fatty degeneration 
above. The flock should be given frequent (weekly) doses of 
Epsom salts. 

Congestion and Inflammation of tJie Liver. 

These are probably different stages of the same disease. The 
poultryman will find difliculty in distinguishing between this dis- 
ease and that known as hypertrophy of the liver (cf. p. 50). 
The chief post-mortem difference is that in the latter disease 
the liver is more solid, not so easily torn or ruptured. 

Diagnosis. — There are no external symptoms other than those 
of dullness and the general symptoms of disease. Salmon says : 
'Tt is difficult to make a diagnosis during the life of the bird. 
Post-mortem examination reveals a greatly enlarged liver en- 
gorged with blood, tender and easily torn or crushed." 

Treatment. — Treatment of these diseases in individual birds 
is very rarely successful. The general treatment of the flock as 
recommended on p. 49 should be attended to. The chief medi- 
cinal treatment should probably be frequent doses of Epsom 
salts. Various authors recommend dififerent medicinal treat- 
ments. For these see Robinson (pp. 71 to 74). 

Jaundice. 

Jaundice or biliary repletion is said by Megnin (Medicine des 
Oiseaux) to be due to long continued but moderate congestion 
of the liver. This leads to increased activity of this organ and 
is followed by the accumulation of a large quantity of bile in 
the gall bladder and ducts of the bird. This bile is absorbed by 
the blood vessels and causes poisoning which may lead to the 
death of the bird. 

Diagnosis. — There are no specific external symptoms other 



POUI^TRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 53 

than that the wattles and comb may be yellowish. This also 
occurs in other liver diseases. Post-mortem examination shows 
the gall bladder greatly distended with bile. 

Treatment. — Give greater variety of food, especially more 
green food. Give Epsom salts frequently. Megnin recom- 
mends 5^ to I grain of aloes. 

This completes the list of the liver diseases most commonly 
treated as such by poultry veterinarians. There are a number 
of other diseases which especially affect the liver or are caused 
by deranged function of this organ. These may most con- 
veniently be mentioned at this place. 

Blackhead (Infections Enter o-Hepatitis). 

Blackhead is essentially a disease of turkeys. It is not the 
intention of this work to treat diseases of poultry other than 
fowls. Consequently little will be said about this disease except 
as it applies to fowls. If further information is desired the 
reader is referred to the Rhode Island Experiment Station, 
Kingston, R. I., for bulletins relating to this disease. That sta- 
tion has been and still is studying this disease in a most thor- 
ough way. 

Blackhead is a contagious disease affecting the liver and in- 
testines, especially the blind pouches or ceca of the latter. The 
disease is very quickly fatal among turkeys. The turkey is 
apparently more susceptible than any other bird to this disease. 
In certain portions of this country where once turkey raising 
was a promising industry it has been practically annihilated. 
The disease is not usually as fatal to adult chickens but may 
<:ause very serious loses at times. It is now believed by several 
prominent investigators of this disease that white diarrhea, so 
destructive to young chicks, is caused by the same organism as 
blackhead. For further discussion of this see Chapter XIX. 

The cause of blackhead disease according to Dr. Theobald 
Smith (Bur. An. Ind. Bui. X^q. 8) is a minute parasitic proto- 
zoan known as Amoeba meleagridis. More recently Drs. Cole 
and Hadley of the Rhode Island Experiment Station have 
claimed that the causative organism belongs to another group of 
protozoa known as Coccidia. Dr. Smith, however, still main- 
tains that the former organism is concerned in the disease. The 
point to this discussion lies in the fact that the Coccidium has 



54 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

a very different life history from the Amoeba, consequently it 
probably has a different method of dispersal and different means 
must be used in combatting it. 

Diagnosis. — There are no special external symptoms of this 
disease until in an advanced stage. The victim then begins to 
mope, loses its appetite and is inclined to sit apart with drooped 
wings. The head and comb take on a dark color from which 
the disease takes its name ''blackhead." One of the most con- 
spicuous symptoms is the diarrhea. Post-mortem examination 
shows the liver enlarged and disfigured with whitish or yellow- 
ish spots. The ceca are inflamed and often clogged with pus 
and fecal matter. 

Treatment. — Medical treat- 
ment of turkeys affected with 
blackhead is of little avail, at 
least in the present state of 
our knowledge. Cole . and 
Hadley (Rhode Island Expt. 
Stat. Bui. 141) recommend 
the following: (i) Isolate the 
sick bird from the flock and 
place it in a dry, well lighted 
location free from cold and 
Fig. i' Showii^ondition of draughts. (2) Feed sparing- 
liver in "blackhead." (Modi- ly on soft, light, easily assim- 
fied after Moore). liable food, with little grain, 

especially corn." The chief preventative measures are to keep 
the birds on fresh ground; to isolate any birds showing the 
least sign of disease, to destroy all dead birds and to protect 
the turkeys from contamination carried either by new stock or 
by other poultry or by wild birds as sparrows, crows, etc. Dr. 
Morse (B. A. I. Circ. 128) recommends for turkeys under 3 
months old ^ grain copperas in the morning and a 2^ grain 
pill of salicylate of soda in the evening. Give Epsom salts 
every 3 or 4 days and keep the grounds and floors well sprinkled 
with lime. 

With fowls the disease is not so virulent but it is still well 
to protect the flock from introduction of this disease. In this 
connection Dr. Cole (American Poultry World, 1910) says: 
'Tt is no uncommon thing for adult chickens and other poultry 




POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 55 

to die with all the pathological appearances of blackhead, which 
diagnosis has been confirmed with the microscope. Further- 
more, infection there with this organism appears to be one of 
the principal causes of death of brooder chicks, which exhibit 
the symptoms of one form of the poultryman's greatest scourge, 
white diarrhea.' It has often been said of late : If you want 
CO raise turkeys keep them away from chickens; it might be 
daid with even greater emphasis : If you want to raise chickens, 
keep turkeys away from them." 

Dr. G. B. Morse of the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
gives (Reliable Poultry Journ., Sept., 1910) a number of other 
diseases which affect the liver. Some of these which are not 
treated elsewhere in this circular will be mentioned in the fol- 
lowing paragraphs. 

Cercomoniasis. 

This is frequently called "spotted liver." It, like many other 
liver diseases, is associated with intestinal trouble, especially 
severe diarrhea, that attacks poultry during the summer months. 
The disease is caused by a flagellate micro-organism known as 
Monoccrcomonas gallinariim. The post-mortem appearance of 
the liver in this disease shows usually slightly depressed yellow- 
ish necrotic areas or spots. This fact usually distinguished this 
disease from tuberculosis where there are prominent rounded 
cheesy nodules. In pigeons, however, this cercomonad is said 
to cause rounded prominent nodules about the size of a pea. 

This same organism (Monocercomonas gallinarum) is also 
said to be responsible for other diseases. The most important 
of these is one form of roup. Canker in squabs and intestinal 
diarrhea in poultry are other diseases attributed to this parasite. 

This disease can be held in check, it is said, by keeping the 
poultry plant wxU cleaned and disinfected and by giving the 
birds an occasional purgative, e. g., Epsom salts. 

In aspergillosis, the liver often presents the appearance of 
being "studded all over with minute, whitish or yellowish spots." 
This disease is discussed in Chapter XIX. 

Sarcomatosis and Carcinomatosis. 

In some cases the liver is affected with tumors or cancers. 
These are usually found in connection with similar develop- 
ments on the ovaries. 



50 POULTRY DISKASKS AND THKIR TREATMENT. 

Gout. 

In cases of visceral gout the liver and adjoining organs, are 
covered with a fine chalky sediment. This substance consists 
of crystals of urate of soda. See Chapter XV. for detailed de- 
scription. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



Tuberculosis. 

Tuberculosis in fowls has long been a serious pest in Europe. 
Ziirn in his ''Krankheiten des Hausgefliigels," published in 1882, 
devotes several pages to the description of this disease as it 
occurred in Germany. Its appearance in this country, hdwever, 
seems to have been much more recent. 

Salmon, whose book was published about 1888, says that the 
disease "is by no means rare in the United States if the state- 
ments of our professional men are to be accepted." However, 
at that time very little had been done in the way of bacterio- 
logical diagnosis and no doubt many of the early reports were 
unreliable. 

The disease was first reported on the basis of bacteriological 
examination in 1900 by Pernot (Oregon Agr. Expt. Stat. Bull. 
64). In 1903 Moore and Ward reported investigations on 
avian tuberculosis in California (Proc. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 
1903). They found "a number of flocks in which the mortality 
from the disease was very high." Fowl tuberculosis was re- 
ported from western and central Canada in 1904 by Dr. C. H. 
Higgins (Dept. of Agr. Canada, 1905). In 1906 it was re- 
ported from New York and in 1907 from southern ^Michigan. 
The disease has been reported in many other places within the 
last few years. It thus seems certain that the disease is wide- 
spread throughout the United States and Canada and in the 
future must be reckoned with by American poultrymen. 

Tuberculosis may exist extensively among fowls, especially 
in large flocks, and yet not kill enough birds to attract attention 
to it. Reports show that farmers often lose i or 2 birds a 
year from what appears to be tuberculosis. In many places the 
loss seems to be gradually increasing. The existence of the 
disease in the flock fails to attract the attention of the owner 
because the losses are so evenly distributed throughout the year. 
Moore and Ward report a flock of 1400 birds from which 250 
had died during the first year. Another man lost 300 birds out 



58 POUIyTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

of a liock of, 1460. Microscopic examination proved that these 
were dying of tuberculosis. 

Tuberculosis is confined chiefly to adult or nearly adult fowls. 
Only very rarely, if ever, is it found in growing chicks. Fur- 
ther it is much more common in fowls than in other kinds of 
poultry. Two cases in wild geese were reported at the On- 
tario Agricultural College. Avian tuberculosis is said to be 
found in turkeys, pheasants, and especially in pigeons. Cage 
birds are particularly susceptible to this disease. 

Etiology. — Tuberculosis is caused by a minute germ, the 
Bacillus tuberculosis of birds. These bacteria gain entrance to 
certain portions of the body and there multiply in vast numbers, 
causing the formation of small nodules or tubercles. The dis- 
ease is highly contagious and is spread through the flock by the 
contact of healthy birds with the diseased ones, or with their 
discharges. 

The relation of avian tuberculosis to that of man and other 
animals has attracted a great deal of attention. It is a subject 
of very great importance to the poultryman, not only on account 
of his flock but also on account of its relation to the health of 
himself and his family. In this connection, writing some years 
ago Salmon says: ''Many outbreaks (of fowl tuberculosis) have 
been attributed to infection from eating the sputum of persons 
affected with consumption. The possibility of such infection is 
admitted by some authorities and denied by others. It is cer- 
tain that poultry and pigeons are not easily infected experi- 
mentally with the tuberculosis of people, cattle and other ani- 
mals which are classed together as mammals." On the other 
hand. "The bird or avian tuberculosis spreads rapidly from 
bird to bird and is easily transmitted experimentally to birds but 
it has little effect upon most mammals which are very suscep- 
tible to human tuberculosis. There is, consequently, a marked 
difference between avian and mammalian tuberculosis. The 
disease in the two cases does not appear to be absolutely dis- 
tinct, but should rather be regarded as two varieties of the same 
malady." 

In the last few years a great deal has been found out about 
tuberculosis in both birds and mammals. The results have 
been summarized and extended by Drs. Koch and Rabinowitsch 
in an extensive paper dealing with avian tuberculosis and its 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 59 

relation to mammalian tuberculosis (Virchow's Arch. f. Path. 
Anat. u. Phys., etc., Bd. 190, pp. 246-541, 1907). Their results 
may be briefly stated as follows: Attempts to infect fowls 
with mammalian tuberculosis, like the earlier negative results 
of other authors, have been fruitless. However, fowls are very 
easily infected with avian tuberculosis by feeding them parts of 
diseased birds. On the other hand, methods of infecting fowls 
other than feeding are not always successful even with avian 
tuberculosis. Other birds, especially cage birds, are very read- 
ily infected in various ways. Parrots, in particular, are sus- 
ceptible not vonly to avian tuberculosis but also to mammalian 
and human tuberculosis. Also canary birds, sparrows, and va- 
rious birds of prey were proven to be susceptible to both avian 
and mammalian tuberculosis. In these respects such birds 
differ materially from the domestic fowls. 

On the other hand their later researches have made it appar- 
ent that a large number of mammals are susceptible to avian 
tuberculosis. These include not only the small laboratory ani- 
mals as rabbits, mice and guinea pigs, but also cattle, hogs, 
horses, goats, and donkeys. Also avian tubercle bacilli have 
been found in cases of human tuberculosis. On the basis of 
such experiments and observations it appears that avian and 
mammalian tuberculosis are not caused by different species of 
bacteria but by different varieties of the same species. These 
varieties have developed because the bacilli have grown for a 
long period of time under different conditions. They are not 
so different, however, but that they may grow in the environ- 
ment best suited to the other one. 

It thus appears that zvhilc fozvls are not very likely to contract 
tiihci'cnlosis from domestic animals or from man, yet fowls that 
haz'c the diseases are a serious menace to the other animals 
on the farm as ivell as to the poultryman and his family. (Cf. 
further on this point p. 64 below). 

Diagnosis. I'uberculosis in mankind is so serious a disease 
chiefly because it is so difficult to recognize it in it*s earliest 
stages. The same is true with the disease in fowls. There are 
positively no external symptoms by which the disease can be 
recognized in fowls before the advanced stages. Morse (R. P. 
J. Sept, 1910) says on this point : "There is a combination of 
symptoms that might serve to arouse your suspicions ; steadily 



6o 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 




advancing- emaciation ; ane- 
mia, shown by pallor of 
comb wattles and the skin 
about the head ; general 
weakness ; lan^eness, ruffling 
of the feathers and in many 
cases diarrhea. When com- 
bined wath the foregoing 
you notice a bright eye and 
a ravenous appetite you 
may have very strong sus- 
picions." 

Emaciation is one of the 
l)est symptoms and in the 
last stages of the disease be- 
comes very marked. Per- 
not cites the case of a Ply- 
mouth Rock hen weighing 4 
pounds that was reduced to 
22 ounces. Ihe emaciation 
is very marked m the mus- 
cles covering the breast 
bone. Fig. 2 shows the 
breast bone of a tuberculous 
hen from which the skin 
only has been removed. 

Lameness is another 
symptom often shown in the 
later stages of the disease. 
This is caused by tuberculo- 
sis of the joinrs as has been 
proven in many cases. Such 
cases are often called ''rheu- 
Fig. 2. Breast bone of a fowl matism" by poultrymen. 
showing excessive emaciation in Tuberculosis may also form 
tuberculosis. (After Ward). tumors or ulcers or various 

outgrov. ths on the head and limbs of birds. Such forms of the 
disease are comparatively rare in poultry, however. Parrots 
are particularly afifected with these external tubercles. 

None of these symptoms, however, is more than an indication 




POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



6l 



of the possible presence of the disease. Morse says: "At the 
post-mortem examination you may have your suspi- 
cions strengthened by finding hver. spleen, intestines 
and membrane uniting the intestinal folds (mesenteries) 
studded with yellowish white cheesy nodules of various 
sizes." Outside of the bacteriological test these post-mortem 
findings are the best 
proof of the disease we 
have. The liver is af- 
fected in nearly every 
case of fowl tubercu- 
losis. However, as has 
been pointed out many 
times in these pages, a 
spotted condition of 
the liver is no sure sign 
of tuberculosis. Most 
of the other liver dis- 
eases of fowls cause a 
simple blotching- of the 
tissue in which the 
center of each spot is 
usually depressed or 
at least only slightly 
raised. (Cf. Fig. i, p. 
54). In tuberculosis 
the liver is covered 
with numerous raised nodule 
size as shown in fig. 3. A section of the liver shows these 
nodules or tubercles distributed throughout the tissue. 

Still more conclusive evidence is 
found if the spleen is covered with 
these same kind of nodules. The 
spleen in health is a small rounded 
purplish organ about ^ inch in 
diameter. It lies just above the 
liver in the region of the gall blad- 
der. In cases of tuberculosis it is 
Fig. 4. Spleen from tuber- very frequently greatly enlarged 
culous fowl cut through ^j-^^f j, studded throug-hout with the 
the middle. (After Koch 

and Rabinowitsch). 

ni fig. 4. 




Fig. 



3. Liver of fowl affected with 
tuberculosis. (After Ward). 

varvine orreatlv in number and 







1a^' 



yellowish-white tubercles as shown 



62 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



Still another very important piece of post-mortem evidence 
is found if the intestines and the mesenteries are dotted with 
these rounded nodules as shown in fig. 5. 




Fig. 5. Intestine and mesenteries of a fowl affected with 
tuberculosis. (After Ward). 

The lungs are z'cry rarely affected and then usually by the 
infection spreading from the liver on to the adjoining lung tis- 
sue. All this agrees with the fact previously stated that fowls 
are most easily infected through the digestive tract. Alteration 
of the bones, joints or other organs occur much more rarely and 
usually only in the most advanced stages of the disease. 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 63 

If the post-mortem findings agree in essentials with those giv- 
en in the preceding paragraphs we may be practically certain 
that we are dealing with tuberculosis. It should not be forgot- 
ten, however, that the pathologist would not be willing to pro- 
nounce the disease tuberculosis until he had taken a small parti- 
cle of the cheesy material and after staining this in a particular 
way had demonstrated by microscopical examination that the 
tubercle bacilli were present. 

Moore and Ward have carried on some experiments in the 
use of tuberculin in detecting this disease. Ward (loc. cit.) gives 
the results of trials on 21 hens affected with tuberculosis. In 
very few cases did the tests give positive results and these 
were so slight and irregular as to be useless as a method of diag- 
nosis. Apparently there is little hope of success in this direc- 
tion with fowl tuberculosis. 

Methods of Contagion. The spread of tuberculosis from 
fowl to fowl takes place only when the living bacteria are trans- 
ferred from the diseased to the healthy birds. From the fact 
that tuberculous lesions are most commonly found in the inter- 
nal organs of the digestive system we may conclude that the 
bacteria usually enter the body along with the food. Exam- 
ination of the tubercles situated along the intestine shows that 
in many cases these communicate directly with the interior of 
the digestive tract. These are constantly emptying enormous 
numbers of bacteria which are carried to the outside by the 
feces of the bird. Without doubt the droppings of tuberculous 
fowls are the most important factor in the spread of this disease. 
This is especially true when in addition the birds are fed upon 
ground which is partly covered with these droppings. Besides, 
the infectious material may very easily be carried by the feet 
and thus mixed with the food. 

Ward states that there is no evidence to indicate that tuber- 
culosis is spread through the ^gg. He cites in support of this the 
fact that badly diseased birds do not lay and second the absence 
of tuberculosis among young stock. Koch and Rabinowitsch, 
however, on the basis of later and more thorough work make 
the following statement (p. 431) : "The possibility of the con- 
genital origin of tuberculosis of fowls through the infection of 
the fertilized tgg with bird tuberculosis is shown by our results. 
It is also demonstrated by our inoculation experiments on 



64 POUI.TRY DISEASE:S AND THE:iR TRI^ATM^NT. 

eggs." Further they have given experimental proof of the 
transfer of the bacteria of mammahan tuberculosis from the 
iuoculatcd egg to the chick. As noted before it was very difficult 
to do this by feeding the hens food infected with mammalian 
tuberculosis. 

In this connection it is of interest to mention a case of the 
apparent transfer of fowl tuberculosis to man. In the Medical 
Record (Vol. 31, 1887) there is recorded a case of human 
tuberculosis in France which apparently came from eating 
tuberculous fowls which 'Svere cooked very little before being 
eaten." The case occurred "in a little hamlet of 10 cottages 
isolated in the midst of a large forest." No other source of 
infection could be discovered. 

Treatment. Fowl tuberculosis when it reaches the stage at 
which it can be diagnosed cannot be cured under our present 
knowledge. Treatment of individual cases should not be at- 
tempted. After it has been ascertained by post-mortem (and if 
possible bacteriological) examination that the disease exists in 
the flock all suspected birds should be removed at once. If 
the disease is to be controlled it must be by keeping the healthy 
and the affected birds apart. The most serious thing about 
tuberculosis is that there may be many birds in the flock that 
are in early stages of the disease but do not betray their condi- 
tion. Long before these birds show recognizable symptoms 
they are throwing out millions of bacteria which become a men- 
ace to the remainder of the flock. 

If only one or two cases of tuberculosis are found it may be 
sufficient to simply disinfect the houses, yards, feeding troughs 
and drinking vessels. This should be done with some good dis- 
infectant. (See Chap, II). Morse recommends also the liberal 
application of lime referring to the fact that "lime workers sel- 
dom suffer with tuberculosis." The runs should be cultivated 
and the houses should be open to the sunshine and fresh air at 
all times. 

If, however, the number of birds dying of tuberculosis in 
the flock is increasing even though the increase is very gradual, 
more strenuous measures must be taken. Under these condi- 
tions Dr. Morse says : "Kill everything in sight, disinfect, allow 
the poultry plant to lie fallow for several months, disinfect again 
and buy fresh stock that is known to be healthv." This no 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 65 

doubt is the surest way to get rid of the disease and wherever 
possible it should be done. However, where the disease is 
found in large flocks of birds such measures would bankrupt 
the ovv^ner. Or a man may have a very fine strain of birds 
which he has spent many years in perfecting and which it 
would be impossible to replace. In such cases Morse proposes 
"Banging" out the tuberculosis according to the methods of 
new-herd-building in dairy cattle as proposed by Prof. Bang of 
Copenhagen. Morse's directions for "Banging" out tubercu- 
losis are as follows: "Secure new or thoroughly disinfected 
ground, keeping it absolutely free from contact with the ground 
used by the infected flock. Erect new houses on this ground. 
Collect the eggs from the infected birds and wash them in 95 
per cent alcohol or in a 4 per cent solution of some good coal 
tar disinfectant. Incubate these disinfected eggs in new incu- 
bators. When hatched, remove chicks to new brooder houses 
on the new ground. These growing chicks should be cared for 
by new men, that is to say, either different men from those that 
care for the old flock or if you are compelled to use the same 
men they should disinfect their hands and shoes and put on 
fresh overalls before handling the new stock. Have different 
feed bins and different pails for distributing it. As soon as you 
have built up a clean flock destroy the old and disinfect the 
ground occupied by them by the method outlined above." 

This method is, no doubt, excellent in theory and if carried 
out with complete and never-failing attention to details might 
work. It is doubtful, however, whether in actual practice a 
poultryman would ever be able to carry it through successfully 
or profitably. 



CHAPTER IX. 



Cholera. 



Fowl cholera is a virulent, usually fatal and highly infec- 
tious disease. It is entirely distinct from the ordinary forms 
of enteritis with which it is often confused by poultrymen. 
Fowl typhoid and infectious leukaemia are also often mistaken 
for cholera. Genuine fowd cholera is rather rare in this coun- 
try but is much more common in Europe. This disease was 
first reported in this country about 1880 -by Salmon (Rept. U. 
S. Comm. of x\gric.). Owing to the lack of proper bacteriologi- 
cal methods at that time Salmon was not able with certainty to 
identify this disease with the European cholera. From certain 
experimental work he concluded that some of the symptoms 
exhibited by the disease in this country were different from 
those described by European writers. About 1894 Moore (U. 
S. Bur. An. Ind., Bui. 8) obtained material from several out- 
breaks of supposed cholera but found this disease to differ in 
several important respects from the European trouble. More 
recently Curtice (R. I. Expt. Stat. Bui. 87) has described a 
disease similar to that of Moore's under the name of fowl 
typhoid. What appears to be the genuine European fowl 
cholera has been reported several times within the last few 
years. 

Fowl cholera attacks all varieties of poultry; also caged 
birds and many species of wild birds. ''The infection generally 
occurs by taking food or drink contaminated with the excre- 
ment of sick birds. It is also possible for birds to be infected 
through wounds of the skin or by inhalation of the germs in 
the form of dust suspended in the air. They often take the 
germs into their bodies by consuming particles of flesh or blood 
from the carcasses of affected birds that have died or have 
been killed." 

"The disease is generally introduced upon a farm or in a 
locality, with new birds, purchased for improving the flocks or 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 6/ 

with eggs for hatching. When it exists in a district it may be 
disseminated by wild animals or wild birds." (Salmon). 
Diagnosis: Salmon gives the following as external symptoms : 
"The earliest indication of the disease is a yellow coloration 
of the urates, or that part of the excrement which is excreted 
by the kidneys. This in health is a pure white, though it is 
frequently tinted with yellow as a result of other disorders 
than cholera. While therefore this yellowish coloration of the 
urates is not an absolutely certain proof of cholera, it is a val- 
uable indication when the disease has appeared in a flock and an 
effort is being made to check its course by isolating birds as 
soon as affected. In a few cases the first symptom is diarrhea 
in which the excrement is passed in large quantities, and con- 
sists almost entirely of white urates mixed with colorless mucus. 
Generally the diarrhea is a prominent symptom. The excre- 
ment is voided frequently, and consists largely of urates sus- 
pended in a thin, transparent, sometimes frothy mucus. The 
urates have a deep yellow color, which in the later stages of 
the disease may change to greenish or even a deep green." 

"Very soon after these first symptoms appear the bird sep- 
arates itself from the flock, it no longer stands erect, the feath- 
ers are roughened or stand on end, the wings droop, the head 
is drawn down towards the body and the general outline of 
the bird becomes spherical or ball shaped. At this period there 
is great weakness, the affected bird becomes drowsy and may 
sink into a deep sleep which lasts during the last day or two 
of its life and from which it is almost impossible to arouse 
it. The crop is nearly always distended with food and appar- 
ently paralyzed. There is in most cases intense thirst. If the 
birds are aroused and caused to walk there is at first an abun- 
dant discharge of excrement followed at short intervals by 
scanty evacuations." 

In regard to the yellow or green excreta Hadley* says : 
"This is a very characteristic symptom. The excrement of 
normal fowls is not yellow ; and when it is green it is a dark 
green, approaching black. In cholera both yellow and green 
are bright; the green is often an emerald green. These differ- 
ent colors may occur either alone or separately and both are 



*Bulletin 144 R. I. Agr. Expt. Stat. (In press.) The manuscript of 
this bulletin was very kindly loaned by Dr. Hadley. 



68 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

usually accompanied by diarrhea and thick mucus. In case it 
is known that cholera is in the neighborhood, it is well for a 
poultryman to examine, from day to day, the character of the 
droppings on the dropping board." 

"The course of the disease may be rapid or slow in its prog- 
ress through the flock. It may take all within a few days, or 
the fowls may drop off by twos and threes through a period of 
several weeks. After the first symptoms appear the develop- 
ment in individual cases is usually rapid. Forty cases investi- 
gated by Salmon averaged 3 days, but many birds die within 
a few hours after the diarrhea sets in. The time required to 
develop the disease after exposure or inoculation is given by 
Salmon as 4 to 20 days." (Robinson). 

Examination of the dead birds shows inflammation of the 
digestive organs, kidneys and mesenteries in nearly all cases. 
According to Ward (Cahf. Expt. Stat. Bui. 156) ''punctiform 
hemorrhages are found upon the heart with almost absolute 
uniformity. The liver is very frequently marked with punc- 
tiform whitish areas." Sections show that the areas of necrotic 
tissue are present throughout the liver tissue. The blood ves- 
sels of the liver are congested. According to Ward the next 
most striking lesions are found in the reddened and bleeding 
mucosa of the first and second folds of the small intestine (next 
to the gizzard). These reddened areas can even be seen from 
the outside of the intestine. The intestinal contents are of 
either a cream colored pasty mass or may be brownish or even 
green in color. ''Lesions are very rarely observed in other 
portions of the intestine. The ureters are noticeable in prac- 
tically all cases by reason of the yellow-colored urates that 
they contain. The nasal cavity, pharynx and oral cavity fre- 
quently contain a viscous mucous fluid, probably regurgitated 
from the crop." 

Etiology. Fowl cholera is caused by a bacterium known as 
Bacterium hipolaris septicus. It is closely related to the bacil- 
lus of rabbit septicaemia and the bacillus of swine plague. 
''Under the microscope the bacterium presents either a circular 
or oval outline. It is about i 50-thousandth of an inch broad 
and 2 or 3 times as long. It grows best at from 85° to 105° F. 
It has no power of movement, does not form spores, and is eas- 
ily destroyed by drying, by the ordinary disinfectants and by a 
temperature of 132° F. for 15 minutes." (Salmon). 



POUIvTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 69 

Fowl cholera cannot be recognized with certainty except by a 
bacteriological examination. Practically, however, this makes 
but little difference to the poultryman. The methods of com- 
batting cholera are not radically different from those used 
against similar infectious diseases. The occurrence of a num- 
ber of sudden deaths in a flock indicate the presence of an 
infectious disease and call for the inauguration of sanitary 
and remedial measures at once. At the same time a letter de- 
scribing the symptoms should be sent to the Division of Pathol- 
ogy, Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. In this 
way the name of the particular disease can be determined and 
advice as to any specific treatment will be received. 

Treatment. ''The best authorities on the subject regard gen- 
uine cholera as practically incurable. It is said that none of the 
alleged remedies have proved effective in cases known to be 
true cholera, and the presumption is that the persons supposing 
they had cured cholera with them were treating some other 
disease. While treatment of affected individuals is regarded 
as futile, the spread of the disease may be limited and the dis- 
ease stamped out by disinfection to destroy the germs on the 
premises, and by proper measures to prevent their further distri- 
bution." ( Robinson ) . 

Dr. P. T. Woods, who several years ago while manager of 
a poultry ranch in New Jersey, had considerable experience with 
cholera gives the following method of dealing with the disease. 
(Reliable Poultry Remedies). 

''As soon as the disease is discovered, establish a pest house 
remote from the other poultry buildings, a place that can be 
easily and thoroughly disinfected. Isolate all suspected cases 
in the pest house as soon as you can find them. Give these 
birds a few drops of creolin in their drinking water (just 
enough to turn it faintly milky), or give them drinking water 
in which has been dissolved one one-tenth of a grain tablet of 
corrosive sublimate to the quart of water. All birds which show 
marked symptoms of the disease had better be killed and cre- 
mated at once. This is safest and best. Kill them by strang- 
ling or by a sharp blow with a blunt club, breaking the neck. 
Do not draw blood, as the blood is infectious, and you do not 
want to spill it. If they bleed, scrape up all the blood and 
burn with the body, and disinfect the place where it fell. Rake 



70 POUI.TRY DISEASES AND THKIR TREATMENT. 

Up and burn all litter used in houses or runs occupied by in- 
fected birds. Spray the runs and all parts of the buildings 
with a strong solution of creolin, or a i per cent solution of 
sulphuric acid in water. Do not use any litter until you are 
sure that the disease is eradicated. Thoroughly disinfect every- 
thing that could possibly be contaminated by the infected fowls, 
and repeat this as often as you find a new case. The runs or 
yards should be thoroughly disinfected and should be ploughed 
up often." 

In connection with his work on an outbreak of fowl cholera in 
California, Ward points out the following important conclusion : 
"Cholera and other infectious diseases may exist in a fowl in 
a sort of inactive chronic condition and there is no doubt con- 
cerning the agency of such a case in spreading the disease. 
Thus, fowls not suspected of being diseased may have the dis- 
ease smouldering among them. The fact that occasionally a 
single fowl dies of cholera means that a severe loss may occur 
at any time." 

The practical recommendation for an outbreak of fowl chol- 
era then is to kill and destroy all sick birds, confine all well 
birds to small runs. Disinfect these runs and the houses daily. 
After the outbreak is over and the birds have ceased dying it 
is best to market all flocks in which the cholera appeared. This 
latter precaution will often prevent a second outbreak some 
months later. 

Methods of prevention are always the most satisfactory. The 
careful poultryman will guard his flock against all infectious 
diseases by methods of quarantine, disinfection and general 
cleanliness. At the same time the birds should be fed to keep 
them in the best of health. On these points read Chapter II. 

Through the kindness of Dr. Philip B. Hadley the writers 
have had the opportunity to read the manuscript of Bulletin 144 
of the Rhode Island Experiment Station dealing with fowl 
cholera. On the basis of his experimental work Dr. Hadley 
recommends subcutaneous injections of 5 per cent carbolic acid 
as a treatment for individual birds. In the summary of this 
bulletin Dr. Hadley says: ''At the Rhode Island Station at- 
tempts have been made to prevent the development in fowls 
of cholera artificially produced by inoculation with the fowl 
cholera organism. The protective inoculations have involved 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 71 

subcutaneous inoculations with a 5 per cent solution of carbolic 
acid in amounts of from 2 to 4 c. c. daily." 

''The results thus far secured show that the inoculations as 
given protected artificially infected birds, and did no harm to 
birds that were in normal health. They therefore suggest that 
subcutaneous inoculations with carbolic acid have a protective 
and perhaps a therapeutic value in fowl cholera." 



CHAPTER X. 



Disi:ase;s 01^ THE Abdominal Cavity. 
Peritonitis. 

The thin serous membrane which Hnes the abdominal cavity 
and covers the internal organs is called the peritoneum. In- 
flammation of this membrane may occur in connection with 
the inflammation of certain internal organs such as the intes- 
tines, liver, kidneys, etc. In these cases the inflammation ex- 
tends from the diseased organs on to the wall of the body 
cavity. Peritonitis may also be caused by the entrance of 
foreign bodies into the abdominal cavity. It may further be 
caused by severe bruises or injuries of the abdominal wall. 

Foreign bodies enter the abdominal cavity chiefly through 
perforation of the intestine. This may occur through severe 
inflammation, by sharp-pointed objects pushing through the 
intestinal wall or by parasitic round worms or other parasites 
puncturing the wall. In many cases mature eggs separate 
from the ovary but fail to enter the oviduct. Or, owing to 
rupture of the oviduct or a reversal of its peristalsis, the ^gg 
substance may enter the abdominal cavity. Usually these eggs 
are absorbed or walled off without very serious annoyance to 
the bird. In other cases they may cause severe peritonitis. 
Finally foreign bodies may enter the abdomen through such 
operations as caponizing. 

Diagnosis. — The sick birds appear restless and lose their 
appetite. There is a high fever. The abdomen is swollen, hot 
and tender. Pressure on the abdomen produces evidence of 
sharp pain. Usually, but not always, a severe thirst accom- 
panies peritonitis. As the disease progresses the bird becomes 
weaker, is unable to stand and the legs are drawn up close to 
the body often with convulsive movements. 

Post-mortem examination shows the peritoneal membrane to 
be deep red in color (provided the bird has just died or has 
been freshly killed without bleeding). This membrane is usu- 



POUI.TRY DISKASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 73 

ally covered with a thick opaque yellowish exudate. This gives 
it the appearance of being much thicker than usual. In some 
cases small lumps of whitish matter (pus) are found. The 
abdomen may contain more or less liquid which is usually yel- 
lowish and turbid and may have an offensive odor. If a mis- 
carried egg is the cause of the trouble portions of this will 
usually be found. 

Treatment and Prognosis. — Only very seldom is treatment 
for peritonitis successful. The disease is not usually recog- 
nized until in an advanced age. Ziirn recommends wrapping 
parts of the bird in wet cloths and to give internally tincture of 
aconite, 2 drops (at the most) with a teaspoon ful of water 2 or 
3 times a day. Sanborn recommends i grain opium pills twice 
a day to relieve pain, and warm liquid foods such as meat juice 
and milk in equal parts. 

Abdominal Dropsy or Ascites. 

Etiology. — This disease is sometimes called chronic peritonitis. 
It is characterized by the accumulation of a large quantity of 
liquid in the abdominal cavity. In some cases the abdomen 
becomes so distended that it nearly or quite touches the ground 
when the bird is standing. Salmon says : ''If examined by 
slight pressure of the hand the swelling is found to be soft and 
fluctuating; it will yield in one place and cause greater disten- 
sion at another. That is, it gives the sensation of a sac filled 
with liquid." 

Abdominal dropsy may begin with a mild case of peritonitis 
which has continued for a long time without becoming serious. 
In young chicks it is said to be due to an anaemic condition 
produced by bed feeding and insanitary conditions. In older 
birds it may also result from this same cause or may be due to 
some obstruction of the venous circulation either by a tumor or 
by some structural disease of the abdominal organs. 

Diagnosis. — The most marked symptom, of course, is the 
•enlarged, flabby abdomen. Salmon says : "Fowls aflfected in 
this way are dull, disinclined to move, generally feeble with 
pale comb and diminished appetite." 

Treatment. — ''Treatment of this condition is not profitable, 
but in special cases, stimulating diet with considerable animal 
food, tonics and diuretics, may be tried. Iodide of potassium 



74 POUI.TRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

or iodide of iron in doses of i grain is particularly indicated.'^ 
(Salmon.) Tapping with a hollow needle or trocar through the 
skin and muscles of the abdomen and allowing the fluid to 
escape is also recommended. It will usually be found more 
profitable to kill the bird. 



CHAPTER XL 



Inte:rnai, Parasite:s. 

Fowls are often seriously infested with internal parasites. 
The most important of these are various worms living in the 
alimentary canal. In popular usage these are spoken of simply 
as "worms." Various other internal parasites as the gape 
worm, the air sac mite, etc., are described in other sections of 
this book. The present discussion will be confined to intes- 
tinal worms. 

Regarding these Robinson says : ''Worms in small quantities 
inhabit the digestive organs of all fowls and animals without 
causing them serious inconvenience. It is even maintained by 
some authorities that in limited numbers these parasites are 
beneficial, though in just what way they are beneficial I have 
never seen stated, and it seems more reasonable, in the present 
state of knowledge of the subject, to claim no more than that 
when not too numerous they do no perceptible harm. Worms 
are contagious in that they are transmitted from fowl to fowl, 
probably always indirectly by being deposited on the ground by 
one fowl and taken from it by another ; but if it is true as stated 
that worms in small numbers are always present, contagion is 
not required to account for their increase to troublesome num- 
bers in many members of a flock simultaneously. The more 
reasonable assumption in the premises is that ail these fowls 
alike were in a condition favorable to an excessive development 
of the parasites. This is a phase of the question on which the 
literature of the subject has done nothing — yet it seems to be 
the all-important point to determine." 

Diagnosis of Worms in General.— Accur^ite diagnosis of 
worms in the intestines can be made only by finding the worms 
in the droppings of the fowls. Fowls affected with worms to 
any great extent frequently show the general symptoms of dull- 
ness and depression. Birds that are suspected of being affected 
with worms should be shut up in a coop and given a dose of 



76 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

some vermifuge or a purgative dose of Epsom salts. If careful 
•observation of the droppings are made at frequent intervals the 
worms, if present, can usually be detected in this way. This 
is not, however, an infallible test. Regarding further measures 
Robinson says : ''If efforts to secure evidence from the living 
fowls of the presence of worms fail, and the poultryman is at 
a loss to account for the trouble with his fowls, a suspected fowl 
should be killed and examined, and if this is still insufficient, 
the case should be taken to a competent veterinary. It is of 
greatest importance that the facts in such cases be learned and 
proper treatment given, for whether the worms cause the trouble 
or conditions exist which favor their increase, the situation is 
full of danger to the keeper of a flock in which serious trouble 
is associated with worms ; and while I do not wish to unneces- 
sarily alarm anyone, the fact that in recent years worms in epi- 
demic form have put a number of poultry plants out of busi- 
ness, should be stated as a warning to poultrymen troubled with 
imidentified diseases presenting symptoms which might be asso- 
ciated with worms." 

The principal parasitic worms which affect the digestive tract 
of fowls may be grouped into three classes as follows : Tape 
worms, round worms and flukes. 

Tape Worms. 

Tape worms have long been known to infest domestic poultry. 
Occasionally serious outbreaks of the tape worm disease occur 
in various parts of the country. These outbreaks are usually 
confined to comparatively small areas and are perhaps more 
common in the southern states. 

Etiology. — The tape worms of poultry, like those which infest 
man and the domestic animals, are long, flat, segmented worms, 
(fig. 6.) The anterior end of the animal possesses a number 
of hooks or suckers by which it attaches itself to the walls of 
the intestine. Back of this head the entire animal consists of a 
long series of segments or proglottids. The segments nearest 
the head are the smallest and it is at this region that new seg- 
ments are constantly being formed. The farther from the head 
they get the larger the segments become. Towards the pos- 
terior end of the worm the segments develop sexual organs and 
later become filled with eggs. As soon as tlie eggs are 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



77 



fertilized and mature the segment 
containing them drops off and passes 
to the exterior with the feces of the 
host. Each segment of this kind 
contains thousands of eggs. 

If these eggs are to develop far- 
ther they must be swallowed by some 
intermediate host (as a worm, snail 
or insect). The tgg then hatches 
into a 6-hooked embryo which bores 
its way from the intestine into the 
body cavity of the intermediate host. 
It here develops into a larval form 
known as a cystic crcoid. When the 
intermediate host (worm, snail, etc.) 
is eaten by a chicken this larva con- 
tinues its development and forms 
an adult tape worm. Thus there 
are two stages in the life cycle of a 
tape worm : that in the adult host 
and that in the intermediate host. 
Each species of tape worm, of which 
there are a great many, has its par- 
ticular host, both intermediate and 
final. 

According to Stiles (Bur. An. 
Ind. Bui. 12) there were up to 1896, 
tape 33 species of tape worms recorded 
(Af- for poultry. Of these 11 are re- 
corded as occurring in chickens. 
The complete life history is known 
for only a few of these. Regarding the tape worms of chick- 
ens, Stiles {Igc. tit.) says, p. 13: ''(They) are knozvii to become 
infected with one tape worm through eating slugs (Limax). 
They are supposed to become infected with a second through 
eating snails (Helix) ; by a third through eating flies and by a 
fourth through eating earth worms." 

There seems but little need to give a description of the differ- 
ent species of tape worms found in chickens. The characters 
by which they are distinguished from each other are too minute 
and involved to be of use to the poultryman or farmer. If any- 
one is having trouble with tape worms in poultry the best thing- 




^^/ 



Fig 



6. Drepanidotaema 
fundibitlifoniiis, a 
worm of the fowl, 
ter Stiles). 



78 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 




/ 



to do is to send a portion of the intestine containing the worms 
to the Zoological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. In this way 
the worms will be identified and any specific remedies will be 
recommended. 

Nodular Tcuniasis. 
Stiles says, p. 15: "At least one species of tape worm {Da- 
Toiiica tctvagona) causes a serious nodular disease of the intes- 
tine of chickens which upon superficial examination may be 
easily mistaken for tuberculosis." Moore says (Bur. An. Ind. 
Circ.' No. 3, 1895): 

''Tuberculosis is the only known disease 
for which this affection is liable to be mis- 
taken, and it is of much importance that 
the two diseases should not be confounded. 
The diagnosis has not in my experience 
been difficult, as in every case the attached 
tape worms were readily detected upon a 
•"''", / close examination of the intestinal con- 

JN J I tents, or of the mucous membrane of the 

^^ ;/ infected portion of the intestine. How- 

ever, the worms are quite small and could 
easily be overlooked in a hurried or cursory 
examination. In case of doubt, if the af- 
fected intestine is opened and the mucous 
surface washed carefully in a gentle stream 
of water, the small worms will be observed 
hanging to the mucous membrane. This 
discovery, in the absence of lesions in the 
liver or other organs, would warrant the 
diagnosis of the tape worm disease." 

Diagnosis. — The symptoms of tape worm 
disease are not specific. The general symp- 
toms are similar to those of other worms 
(cf. p. 75). Regarding the symptoms of 
tape worms Stiles quotes the following 
from Ziirn : ''If numerous tape worms are 
present in the intestine of young or old 
fowls a more or less extensive intestinal 
catarrh develops, corresponding to the 
greater or less number of parasites present." 







Fig. 
a 



7. Intestine of 
fowl turned 
vrrong side out to 
show tape worms 
in nodular tae- 
niasis. After 
Pearson and War- 
ren). 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 79 

"The intestinal catarrh shows itself, especially in chickens and 
geese, as follows : The sick animals become emaciated, although 
the appetite is not especially disturbed. At times the appetite 
is even increased. The droppings are thin, contain considerable 
yellow slime, and are passed in small quantities but at short 
intervals. The poultry raiser must direct his attention to these 
thin, slimy, and often bloody droppings, for if any treatment 
against the tape worm is to be undertaken, this must be done as 
early as possible. In observing the droppings it should be 
noticed whether tape worm segments or eggs are present. The 
eggs can be seen, of course, only with the microscope." 

''After a time other symptoms develop. The sick animals 
become dull and Hstless, remain apart from the rest of the flock 
— the feathers are ruffled and the wings droop, the appetite is lost 
and the birds allow themselves to be easily caught. Although 
it was stated that in the beginning of the trouble the appetite is 
not disturbed, the sick animals develop an intense thirst for cold 
water. When it rains they run under the eaves in order to 
catch water, and in winter are eager for ice water." 

Since the examination of the feces for tape worm segments 
is rather unsatisfactory for the farmer or poultryman. Stiles 
says that "The best method for the farmer to follow is to kill 
one of the sick chickens when he suspects tape worms and to 
cut out the intestine. He should then open the intestinal tract 
from gizzard to anus in a bowl of warm water, and look for 
the parasites." (Cf. fig. 7). Finding the worms in the ali- 
mentary canal is the only certain diagnosis of the disease. 

Treatment. — The chief drugs used for tape worms in fowls 
are : Extract of male fern, turpentine, areca nut, powdered 
kamala, pumpkin seed, pomegranate root bark and Epsom salts. 
The following extract from Salmon gives the principal methods 
of treatment and the doses : "One of the best methods of treat- 
ing tape worms in fowls is to mix in the feed a teaspoonful of 
powdered pomegranate root bark for every 50 head of birds. 
In treating a few birds at a time it is well to follow this medicine 
with a purgative dose of castor oil (2 or 3 teaspoonsful). 
According to Ziirn, powdered areca nut is the best tape worm 
remedy for fowls, but he states that turkeys are unfavorably 
affected by it. It may be given in doses of 30 to 45 grains mixed 
with butter and made into pills. Male fern is also a very 
effectual remedy and may be used in the form of powder (dose 



8o 



POULTRY disi:ase;s and their treatment. 



30 grains to i dram) or of liquid extract (dose 15 to 30 drops). 
It should be given in the morning and evening, before feeding. 
Oil of turpentine is an excellent remedy for all worms which 
inhabit the digestive canal. It may be given in the dose of i to 
3 teaspoonfuls, and is best administered by forcing it through a 
small flexible catheter that has been oiled and passed through 
the mouth and oesophagus to the crop. This medicine is less 
severe in its effects if diluted with an equal bulk of olive oil, 
but, if it fails to destroy the parasites when so diluted, it may be 
given pure. The method of administering medicine by deposit- 
ing it directly in the crop can be advantageously used with many 
other liquid remedies, and should be adopted in all cases where 
it is important to have the full dose in the stomach in a short 
time. It does away with the uncertainty attending the giving 
of medicine in the feed or drinking water, and with a little 
practice is more expeditious than making and giving pills. The 
open end of the catheter may be inserted into a rubber bulb 
having one opening. Just sufficient air should be expelled from 
the bulb, so that the dose of medicine will be sucked up without 




u£^.G- 



Fig. 8. Sketch showing method of introducing turpentine directly 
into crop. (From Gage and Opperman). 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 51 

being followed by much air. The bird's head is then brought 
in a line with the neck, which is extended, the catheter is passed 
carefully to the crop, when a slight pressure on the bulb forces 
out the medicine, and the instrument is withdrawn. The opera- 
tor should be sure that he avoids the trachea." 

More recently Gage and Opperman* have found Ep:.om salts 
and turpentine a very effective remedy for Nodular Tseniasis. 
After careful consideration of the data they conclude that "40 
to 50 grains of Epsom salts is sufficient for an adult fowl in 
order to clean out the intestinal tract so that the birds may take 
food. Then the turpentine should be introduced" as directed 
above. For younger birds the dose of salts should be propor- 
tionately less. In fowls from 6 months to 2 years old the salts 
are best given by dissolving in water and giving each fowl this 
liquid. For younger chicks the salts may be dissolved in warm 
water and used to moisten the mash or feed. 

Prevention. — The following statement by Salmon gives some 
of the chief preventative measures: "Parasitic infestation of the 
digestive tract should be guarded against by hygienic measures 
so far as possible. One of the most important of these measures 
is to move the fowls upon fresh ground every 2 or 3 years, or 
certainly in all cases where such parasites are frequently ob- 
served in the intestines of the birds. Another practical measure, 
which may be adopted at the same time, is to remove the excre- 
ment daily from the houses and destroy any parasites or their 
eggs which may be in it, by mixing it with quick lime or satu- 
rating it with a 10 per cent solution of sulphuric acid. The acid 
is cheap, but requires that great care be taken in diluting it, 
owing to danger of its splashing upon the clothing and flesh and 
causing severe burns. It should always be poured slowly into 
the water used for dilution, but on no account should water be 
poured into the acid as it will cause explosions and splashing." 

"When treating diseased birds these should always be isolated 
and confined, and their droppings should either be burned or 
treated with lime or sulphuric acid as just recommended. With- 
out these hygienic measures, medical treatment can only be par- 
tially successful." 

Stiles says : ''An extermination of slugs will insure immunity 
against Davainea proglottina, but no precise directions can be 

*Md. Agric. Expt. Stat. Bui. 139, 1909. 
6 



82 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



given to prevent chickens from becoming infected with other 
tape worms until the Hfe history of these parasites is better 
understood. It will be well, however, to keep the chickens 
housed in the morning until the sun is well up and the ground 
is dry, for they will thus be less likely to meet with the sup- 
posablc intermediate hosts of other worms." 

Round Worms. 

Round worms can be found in the intestine and especially the 

ceca of almost any fowl. They are much more common than 

the tape worms. Normally the round worms cause no serious 

trouble to fowls. Under certain conditions, however, they may 

become so numerous as to 
be a serious menace to the 
fiock. At such times they 
have a decided effect on 
the digestion ; the irrita- 
tion often causes diarrhea. 
When in large numbers, 
they sometimes become 
rolled and matted into a 
ball which may cause 
complete stoppage of the 
intestine. 

The round worms are 
white in color and vary in 
length from 1-3 inch to 5 
inches. The head end is 
sharp pointed, while the 
tail end is more blunt. 
Round worms are seldom 
passed in the feces unless 
present in very large num- 
bers. When a worm is 
passed it soon dies in the 
droppings or is eaten by 
another fowl. 
D is p ha rag us spiralis, a small worm about 1-3 inch in length, 
is often found in the oesophagus and occasionally in the crop or 
intestine. 




Fig. g. Worms protruding from a sec- 
tion of the intestine of a fowl. 
(After Bradshaw). 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT, 



83 



Dispharagus nasiitus, about ^ inch long, occurs in the walls 
of the gizzard of fowls. It sometimes becomes so numerous 
as to cause serious loss. 

Hctcrakis pcrspicillmn, from i;^ to 3 
inches long, is very common in the intes- 
tines of fowls. They sometimes become 
very numerous and may become rolled into 
rather large balls which obstruct the pas- 
sage of the food. 

Several other species of the genus Hctcr- 
akis also infest fowls and other poultry. 

Diagnosis. — The symptoms of round 
worms are similar to those of ail worms 
(cf. p. 75). There is evidence of indiges- 
tion. The comb becomes pale and there 
may be diarrhea. 

Treatment. — The remedies mentioned on 
p. 79 for tape worms are also useful for 
round worms. The remedy most com- 
monly advised is to give 2 grains santonine 
for each bird. Dissolve this in water and 
use to mix the wash. As recommended on 
p. 79, all droppings should be collected and 

examined, also put out of reach of the 

|^-j.^g_ Fig. 10. Hctcrakis 

Yale recommends the following: "Beat P^'^P'^' ''"^• 

, . , . , , , ° , ^ ., a, male, b, female. 

a new laid egg with i tablespoonful of oil ^^ (From Sal- 

of turpentine and mix thoroughly by shak- mon). 

ing. Give a teaspoonful of the mixture 

night and morning for a few days ; or divide ^ of an ounce of 

areca nut in powder, into 4 parts, and give i part each morning, 

fasting, with a dessertspoonful of sweet oil 2 hours after each 

powder." 

Flukes. 

Flukes or trematode worms are small, flat and usually oval- 
shaped. Fig. 1 1 gives a fair idea of the appearance of these par- 
asites. 




84 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



Regarding these parasites in 
poultry, Theobald ( Parasitic 
Diseases of Poultry, London) 
says : "The Trematode worms 
or Flukes found in the fowl are 
3 in number. One is found in 
the tgg (Distoma oratuni) , the 
others in the oesophagus and in- 
testines." 

''The Fluke found in the oeso- 
phagus of the fowl is known as 
Ccphalogonimus pcllucidus, a 
transparent reddish fluke about 
9 mm. long. These were found 
by Von Linstow and Railliet. 
In the intestines Neumann enu- 
merates 7 species, namely, Noto- 
cotylc triscrialis Distome oxyce- 
phahim, Rud., D. dilatatiim, 
Miriam, D. lincare, Zeder, D. 
ovatiim, D. armahim, MoHn, and 
Mesogonimus commutatus, Sons. 
These, however, are not all dis- 
tinct; dilatatum is undoubtedly 
the same as oxycephalum; arma- 
tiim is also probably the same." 
''None of these Trematode worms are of any pathological im- 
portance, although, as is well known, they often cause serious 
maladies in other animals. All the Flukes that have two hosts 
undergo a complicated metamorphosis, the early stages always 
taking place in some water-molluse. Those found in Gallus do- 
mcsticus have not had their life-histories worked out." 




Fig. II 
fluke 
structure, 
soil after 



Trematode worm or 
showing internal 
(From Thomp- 
Sommer). 



CHAPTER XII. 



Diseases of the Respiratory System. 

Anatomy and Physiology. 

The respiratory organs of birds are the nasal passages, the 
pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs and air sacs. The form and 
general appearance of the lungs and trachea are shown in fig. 



12. 





\ L' 




' "', 






|i, 


J V 


t„ 


-^ 


•A. 


Fig. 13. 


Right lung 


of a 


goose. A, 


primary 


branches. 


b, and 


b', open- 


ings into abdomi- 


nal an 


d thoracic 


air sacs 


. c, c, sec- 


on dar 


y bronchi. 


(After 


Owen). 



B 

Fig. 12. Lungs of a 
bird. A, lower sur- 
face. B, upper sur- 
face. (After Salmon). 

The respiratory apparatus differs somewhat in structure and 
function from that of mammals. As in mammals the trachea 
(wind-pipe) divides into the primary bronchi, one passing to 
each lung. In birds these bronchi do not divide and subdivide 



86 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

as in mammals but each passes to the posterior end of its hnig 
and where it opens into the abdominal air sac. This relation is 
shown in fig. 13. 

In the lung the primary bronchus gives off branches (sec- 
ondary bronchi) some of which end blindly (cf. fig. 13). The 
secondary branches give off branches (tertiary bronchi) all of 
which end blindly (cf. fig. 14). This tubular system makes up 
the air-containing portion of the lungs. It is imbedded in a 
net-work of almost naked blood vessels which make up the 
spongy tissue of the lungs (cf. fig. 14). The aeration of the 
blood takes place through the walls of these vessels. The rela- 
tions of this tubular system of the lungs are shown in fig. 14. 

The air sacs are very large, thin-walled sacs which open into 
the bronchial tubes as described. They function chiefly as res- 
ervoirs of air so that fresh air is supplied to the lungs twice dur- 
ing each breath. The air passes through the lungs into them 
during inspiration and during expiration the lungs are filled 
with the air forced back from the sacs. Some aeration of blood 
takes place in the sacs and they also help to reduce the relative 
weight of the body. In addition to aeration of the blood, the 
respiratory apparatus eliminates most of the waste moisture of 
the body and is, therefore, the temperature regulator. In mam- 
mals this function is performed by the sweat glands and the se- 
cretion of the kidneys. Birds have no sweat glands and the 
secretion of the kidneys contains relatively little moisture. 

The air passages are lined with mucous membrane and this 
membrane is the seat of several diseases. Diseases are easily 
transferred from one part of the respiratory system to another, 
since the passages and also the lining membranes are contin- 
uous from the nostrils to the air sacs. There are also diseases 
of the vascular part of the lungs. Some of these diseases are 
caused by unfavorable conditions as exposure to cold, draughts 
of air, or moist air or to improper food. Others are due to 
specific organisms. Most of the latter are contagious. Expo- 
sure to unfavorable conditions also reduces the ability of the 
birds to resist infectious diseases. 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



87 



Cold.) 



/A 



^'\ 



'/>^ 

^^a..' 



4 



r;^ 



r.-r^ 



N 












3 



-/ 



Catarrh. — (Simple Catarrh; Non-contagious Catarrh 
One of the most common 
diseases of the air passages 
is catarrh (cold). It is 
often hard to distinguish 
this disease from early 
stages of roup and diph- 
theria. The characteristic 
symptoms of the latter dis- 
ease should be carefully 
looked for, lest the flock 
become infected with a dan- 
gerous contagious disease. 
In cases where there is a 
suspicion of either of these 
diseases it is better to iso- 
late the sick birds. Catarrh 
is non-contagious. It usu- 
ally affects only a few indi- 
viduals in the flock, but in 
cases of exposure of the 
flock to the unfavorable 
conditions which cause the 
disease it may occur in 
quite a number of birds at 
the same time. 

Diagnosis. vSalmon gives the following description of the 
symptoms of this disease : "In simple, non-contagious catarrh, 
the affected birds are more or less dull, they are disinclined to 
move, their appetites are diminished, they sneeze and the mucous 
membrane is thickened, causing some obstruction to breathing 
through the nostrils. There soon appears a thin, water dis- 
charge which later becomes thicker and glutinous, the eyes are 
often watery, the eyelids swollen and sometimes held together 
by a thick, viscid secretion. In very severe cases, the birds are 
somnolent, the plumage is erect and roughened, the nostrils are 
completely obstructed by the thick secretion, the breathing is 
entirely through the mouth and is accompanied by a wheezing 
or snoring sound, the appetite is entirely lost, a thin liquid es- 
capes from the mouth and the bird soon becomes exhausted and 
dies." 



Fig. 14. A — Lobule of the lung of 
a bird represented in ideal longi- 
tudinal section ; a, a, secondary 
Ijror.chi ; b, b, tertiary bronchi. 
B. — Plexus of blood vessels which 
chiefly compose the pulmonary 
tissue. (After Owen). 



88 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

Etiology. The cause of catarrh is exposure to cold, to 
draughts of air, to damp atmosphere due to improper housing 
conditions, or to wet weather. Weak stock or improperly nour- 
ished birds are more likely to be affected by these conditions 
than strong, vigorous and well fed individuals. 

Treatment. With strong, healthy stock it is usually only nec- 
essary to remove the cause. It is a good practice, however, to 
give red pepper (capsicum) with the food. Salmon gives the 
formula and dose of a tonic recommended by Alegnin. 

"Gentian root 4 drams 

Ginger 4 drams 

Sulphate of iron 2 drams 

Hyposulphite of sodium i dram 

Salicylate of sodium i dram 

These substances are to be pulverized and then thoroughly 
mixed. The dose is 3 to 4 grains a day for a medium-sized fowl. 
Its effects are stimulating and tonic." 

In severe cases, the eyes, mouth, and nostrils may be washed 
once or twice a day with one of the following solutions which 
are given in order of preference : 

1. Boracic acid 3 per cent solution. 

2. Creolin i per. cent solution. 

3. Hydrogen dioxide mixed with equal parts of water. 

4. Carbolic acid, 2 per cent solution. 

Prognosis. A great majority of the birds recover in a few 
days if the cause is immediately removed. If the cause con- 
tinues to act they may become worse and die, or the disease 
may become chronic and persist for a long time. 

Bronchitis^ Croup. 

This disease may follow catarrh as a direct extension of the 
inflammatory processes in the membrane of the nasal cavities 
and throat to the mucous membrane of bronchial tubes. 

Diagnosis. The symptoms of bronchitis are the symptoms of 
a hard cold (severe catarrh) with rapid breathing and cough. 
It may be distinguished from a cold by the peculiar sounds made 
in breathing. In the early stages of the disease this is a whist- 
ling sound made by the passage of the air over the dry, thickened 
membrane. As the disease advances mucus collects in the tubes 
and the breathing is accompanied by a rattling or bubbling sound. 
Under favorable conditions the symptoms do not usually pass 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 89 

beyond this stage but soon disappear. In very severe cases the 
birds become very sleepy and refuse to eat. The wings droop. 
The feathers are roughened and breathing becomes more and 
more difficult, until finally the bird dies. The less severe forms 
of the disea^:e may become chronic while the symptoms of rat- 
tling breath and coughing up mucus may persist for a long time. 
In 'this form of the disease the birds appear well except for the 
above symptoms. 

Etiology. When it follows a hard cold, bronchitis may be 
caused by an extension of the inflammation of the mucosa of 
the throat to the mucosa of the bronchial tubes. It may also be 
caused directly by exposure to cold, draughts, and dampness; 
or it may result from irritation of the mucous membrane caused 
by inhaling irritating vapors, dust or foreign particles. 

Treatment. Place the patient in a warm, dry, well ventilated 
but not draughty rooms. Feed bread or middlings moistened 
with milk, and add to this food 2 grains of black antimony 
twice a day. A demulcent drink is often beneficial. A 
very good one is made by steeping a little flax seed in water. 
Other demulcent drinks are made by dissolving honey or gum 
arabic in water. This treatment is sufficient for mild cases. 
Salmon recommends the following treatment for severe attacks : 
^'If the attack promises to be severe, it may sometimes be 
checked in the early stages by giving 10 drops of spirits of tur- 
pentine in a teaspoonful of castor oil and repeating this dose 
after 5 or 6 hours. It should not be continued after there are 
signs of purging, for fear of exhausting the strength of the 
patient. In the very acute cases, where the whistling or snor- 
ing sounds with the respiration indicate a croupous form of 
inflammation, and where the gasping shows great obstruction 
of the air passage, relief may be obtained by giving from 3 to 
6 drops of either the syrup or the wine of ipecac." 

"Medicines should be administered very carefully in diseases 
affecting the trachea and bronchi, as otherwise they may enter 
the air passages and increase the irritation." 

Prognosis. In the ordinary and chronic forms the birds usu- 
ally recover. In the more severe forms a large per cent of the 
afifected birds die. 

Influenza (Epizootic, Grippe, Distemper). 
This disease is mentioned by Woods as ''a contagious germ 



90 POULTRY DISE:ASES AND THI^IR TRE:aTME:NT. 

disease closely association with roup." Robinson gives a brief 
statement of the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of this dis- 
ease as follows : "Briefly stated, the symptoms are of a sud- 
den and severe cold, with high fever, generally diarrhea, and 
extreme debility. In very severe cases death may ensue with- 
in a few hours after the fowl is observed to be sick. Usually 
the bad cases linger for a day or two, while those that recover 
run for a week or lo days. Treatment the same as for bad 
colds." 

Quite possibly this is not a separate disease but is either a 
severe form of cold occurring in many individuals of a flock 
which has been exposed to unfavorable, insanitary conditions, 
or is a mild form of roup. 

Roup (Contagious Catarrh, Diphtheria, Diphtheritic Roup, 

Canker). 

Veterinarians have distinguished two diseases belonging to 
this general class of troubles as follows: (a) roup or contagious 
catarrh when only catarrhal symptoms are present, and (b) 
diphtheria, diphtheritic roup and canker when diphtherial 
patches and false membranes are formed. The bacteriologists 
Moore, Harrison and Streit, consider these different stages of 
the same disease. Gary not only considers these as one disease 
but also believes that sorehead, chicken pox or epithelioma con- 
tagiosum is also a form of this disease. These questions cannot 
be settled with the present knowledge of the causes of these 
diseases. The evidence for considering roup and diphtheria 
as successive stages in the same disease seem much better than 
the evidence that sore-head is a form of this disease. In the 
present work sore-head is treated separately. 

Roup is a disease of very great economic importance. It is 
widely distributed causing a large annual death rate, and also 
reducing the value and production of affected flocks since many 
birds contract the disease in a chronic form and become worth- 
less for Qgg production or breeding. Such birds preserve the 
g'erms of the disease and this leads to fresh outbreaks when- 
ever the flock is exposed to unfavorable conditions. 

Diagnosis. Harrison and Streit* give a very good descrip- 



*Harrison, F. C, and Streit, H., Roup. Ont. Agr. Coll. & Exp':. 
Farm. Bulletin 125, Dec. 1902, pp. 1-16. 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



91 



tion of the symptoms of roup from early to late stages. The 
following account is quoted from their bulletin: 

"The general condition of roupy birds varies very much. Af- 
ter the first symptoms of the disease, which is usually a putrid 
catarrh from the nostrils, the affected fowl is generally restless, 
separates from other members of the flock, becomes dull, cow- 
ers in the corner of the coop or mopes in the corner of the pen, 
with its head dravrn close to its body and often covered with its 
wings." 

"If there is a severe discharge from the nostrils or eyes, 
then the feathers upon the wings or back are likely to be smeared 
with it, stuck together, and after some time fall out; and the 
eyes often shut, the lids being glued together by the sticky dis- 
charge from them." 

"A fovvl in a sleepy condition, or moping as described, fre- 
quently arouses itself for a time, takes food, and especially 
water, and then gradually returns to the apathetic condition." 




Fig. 15. Showing appearance of a hen a day before death 
from roup. ^From Harrison and Streit). 

''Many fowls having the disease in a chronic form keep their 
normal appetite for a long time, and seem very little disturbed 
physically, whilst others, especially when the face or eyes be- 
come swollen, lose their appetite, grow thinner and thinner, and 
finally become too weak to stand or walk around, when they lie 
down and die in a few days. During the last stage diarrhoea, 
with offensive yellow or green discharge, often sets in and caus- 
es death in a short time." 



92 



POUVrRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



"Many poultry keepers assert that roupy bii'ds show fever; 
and it is certain that the head is often very hot, but the body 
temperature is normal, or only very slightly higher than normal." 

''Special Symptoms of Roup. By the term roup we generally 
iunderstand a more or less putrid discharge from the nostrils, 
which lasts for weeks or even months. The disease often fol- 
lows a common cold, to which fowls, especially young fowls and 
those of the more delicate breeds, are much predisposed." 

"In the first stages of roup, the birds often cough or sneeze, 
and the breathing is noisy, caused by the partial closing of 
the air passages, which become blocked with the discharge from 
the nostrils. When the air passages are entirely closed by the 
discharged products, the fowl has to open its beak in order to 
breathe." 

"Sometimes a yellowish cheese-like mass forms in the nos- 
trils, growing quickly and pressing the upper walls of the nose 
upwards ; and if this mass is removed, an uneven bleeding sur- 
face is left, which forms a new cheesy mass in from 24 to 48 
hours." 



A 


4 




fff 


/ 




1 


k 


W~^W' 1 


Li 


"1 


m-;^ 



Fig. 16. Showing swelling of head in severe 
roup. (From Harrison and Streit). 

•'Whilst many roupy birds show only the above mentioned 
symptoms, others become more seriously diseased. The face 
of roupy birds is very often swollen, especially between the 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 95 

eyes and the nostrils; and this swelHng. which is hot and sore, 
sometimes grows into a tumor as large as a walnut— generally 
firm and hard. (See fig. i6). A bird in this condition is 
frequently found scratching at the tumor with its claws or 
wings, as if endeavoring to remove it. If the tumor grows on 
the inner side, towards the nasal passage, it forces the roof of 
the mouth downward, and the upper and lower beak are slowly 
pressed out of their normal position, so that the bird cannot 
close its mouth." 



^■ 





■v.^' 






i 



A 
Fig. 17. Head of a bird. The lower figure 
shows the maxillo-ociilar sinus, which opens 
into the socket of the eye and communi- 
cates with the nasal cavities. The upper 
figure shows the roup tumor on the head 
caused by the filling of this cavity with 
cheesy pus. (From Megnin). 

"On making an incision into the tumor, we find a solid, cheesy, 
yellowish matter, which may be pulled out like the root of a 
plant ; but it usually has to be broken into small pieces in order 
to get it out. Around this mass, there is a more or less smooth, 
grey or brownish membrane that is capable of again forming a 
cheesy mass similar to what has been removed." 

"The mass itself, when not attended to, often grows into the 
nasal canals, and blocks them up completely. Generally com- 



94 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATxMENT. 

bined with the formation of the tumor on the face, there is an 
affection of the eyes ; or the eyes become diseased without the 
preHminary cUscharge from the nose, in which case poultry keep- 
ers speak of fowls as suffering from "roup of the eyes." 

''Roup of the Byes. The first symptom of the eyes is gener- 
ally an inflammation of the eye-lids. These become red, swollen 
and hot ; then the mucous membrane and glands of eyes become 
inflamed and begin to secrete a liquid — at first clear, and then of 
a grey, slimy, putrid character, which dries on the feathers at the 
side of the head, causing them to stick together or fall out. If 
the secretion is retained in the eye socket, it undergoes a change, 
becoming a yellowish, solid, cheesy mass of the same appearance 
as that found in the nasal tumor. This cheesy mass either 
forces the eye out of its socket, or the inflammation entirely 
destroys it. These cheese-like masses form in one or two 
days, and may reappear after many daily removals." 

"All these affections, described above, may be localized on 
one side ; but often both nasal passages and both eyes are affected 
at the same time." 

"Combined with the symptoms of roup above described, there 
often are patches of a greyish yellow exudation firmly adherent 
to the mouth, throat, etc. These patches are called "false mem- 
branes," and on account of their somewhat close resemblance to 
the membrane which is formed in human diphtheria, it has 
been thought by some writers that the avian and human dis- 
eases are the same. Here, however, let it suffice to say that the 
weight of evidence is against this contention." 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



95 




Fig. i8. Head of a fowl 22 days after in- 
oculation with a culture of the roup 
bacillus. A. — False membrane. (From 
Harrison and Streit). 




Fig. 19. Throat and bottom of mouth 

with false membrane (;«) 14 days after 

inoculation. (From Harrison and 

Streit). 



9G 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 




Fig. 20. A section of a false membrane of a roupy fowl, (a) — false 
membrane; (b), epithelium; (c), sub mucosa. (From Harrison and 
Streit). 




Fig. 21. Head of a bird with diptheritic roup affecting the 
mouth and tongue. A. B, C and D.— False membranes. 
(From Megnin). 

"We may also point out that many poultry keepers who notice 
the false membrane on the throat and mouth of their fowls, 



POUI.TRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 97 

regard the disease as quite different from the catarrhal form, 
and call it "canker," which is probably a popular form of the 
word ''cancer." 

"Whether the disease is characterized by false membranes, 
offensive discharges, or cheesy masses, the cause is the same, as 
we have many times experimentally demonstrated." 

"At one or several places in the mouth or throat, these yellow- 
ish, smooth or uneven membranes appear, and either remain 
small and disappear after a few days or grow thicker, spread, 
and become firmly attached to the mucous membrane; and if 
they (the false membranes) are removed, an uneven, bleeding 
surface is exposed, which looks like a true cancer." 

"After the appearance of the membranes the adjacent sub- 
mucous tissue sometimes becomes inflamed, and finally the 
growths are found to be similar to those so often seen at the side 
of the face — containing solid cheesy matter in the center." 

"When the throat is blocked by these false membranes, the 
animal's breathing becomes abnormal, and the air passing 
through the throat produces loud noises. Gradually, the visible 
mucous membrane and the comb turn blue, and the fowl finally 
dies from suffocation." 

''The Course of the Disease. The course of roup is usually 
of long duration. A simple, putrid discharge from the nose 
may stop in 3 or 4 weeks, and similarly false membranes may 
soon disappear; but generally the symptoms last for months. 
When the eyelids become swollen and tumors appear, the case 
ir- usually chronic. Affected birds may be better for a few days 
or weeks, and then become very weak again. Damp, colu 
weather usually intensifies the disease. 

"It is well known that fowls may be more or less sick from 
roup for one or even several years and these birds should have the 
greatest care and attention, for they are generally the cause of 
new outbreaks. Once introduced, roup may remain in a flock 
for many years. The first cold and moist nights of the fall 
and early winter cause all kinds of catarrhs, which in many 
instances are followed by roup. Roup spreads rapidly in the 
winter time and may attack from 10 to 90 per cent of the fowls 
in a flock. Towards spring, the disease gradually disappears; 
during the summer months, a few birds remain chronically 
affected ; and then the first cold nights give the disease a fresh 
start." 



98 POUI.TRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

"Young fowls and fowls of the fine breeds are especially liable 
to roup. While some poultrymen maintain that birds once hav- 
ing suffered from roup never take the disease again, most of the 
experimental evidence tends to show that no acquired immunity 
exists, as sometimes happens after other diseases. Some fowls 
are, however, naturally immune, and never take the disease. 
In the course of our own experiments, a white chicken which 
had never had roup, was inoculated with repeated and large 
doses of the roup germ, but without effect." 

Etiology. Several organisms have been isolated from the 
lesions of birds suffering from roup. Four of these have some 
claim to be considered the cause of the disease. These include 
3 species of bacteria and one protozoan. There is also some 
evidence that the cause of the disease is an invisible virus. While 
the specific organism or organisms which cause the disease are 
not certainly known its infectious nature is well established. It is 
probably carried from one individual to another in a flock, by the 
particles of dried secretion in the air or possibly by the food and 
drink contaminated by the diseased birds. It may be introduced 
into a flock by the bringing in of birds from an infected flock, 
or by birds that have contracted the disease at shows. Possibly 
it is sometimes carried on the shoes or clothing of persons com- 
ing from infected yards or houses. While a source of infection 
i:: necessary for the production of the disease it does not appear 
to attack birds when the mucous membrane is in a healthy con- 
dition. It is most apt to attack birds that are suffering with 
catarrh. When a flock once becomes infected the birds which 
develop a mild chronic form of the disease serve as sources of 
infection whenever exposure to cold and dampness causes ca- 
tarrh in the unaffected birds. Thus in infected flocks an out- 
break of roup usually follows catarrh caused by exposure and 
this fact has led some poultrymen to think that the disease may 
be caused directly by exposure. In some flocks it appears annu- 
ally with the cold damp weather of late autumn and breaks out 
again at every radical change of temperature and moisture con- 
ditions throughout the winter. Vigorous and properly nour- 
ished birds are better able to resist catarrh and consequently 
roup than those that are delicate and improperly fed. 

Treatment. The best treatment is prevention. The disease 
can be prevented by stopping all sources of infection. Some 
things to keep in mind are : 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 99 

1. In introducing new birds always procure them from unin- 
fected flocks. 

2. Isolate all new birds and all birds that have been exhibited 
at shows for 2 or 3 weeks to make sure that they do not develop 
the disease. 

3. Exclude from uninfected house and yards poultry and 
all other animals, including men, coming from those that are 
infected. 

4. Do not use implements as hoes, shovels, etc., that have 
been used on infected premises. 

5. Keep the birds in a good hygienic condition, well nour- 
ished and in dry well ventilated houses and roomy yards. 

When the disease has been introduced into the flock careful 
precaution may prevent its spread. 

1. Immediately separate from the flock any bird that shows 
symptoms of the disease. 

2. Disinfect the yards and houses. A 5 per cent solution of 
carbolic acid may be used on the yards. Remove the litter from 
the houses and disinfect freely. This 5 per cent carbolic solu- 
tion may also be followed by whitewash, or better use the cre- 
sol solution described in Chap. II. 

3. Use potassium permanganate in all drinking water. (See 

Chap. II.) 

4. Keep watch of the flock so that any new cases may be 
isolated at once. 

5. Burn or bury deep all birds that die. 

The disease is amenable to treatment but this treatment must 
be individual and requires a great deal of time. It must be con- 
tinued once or twice a day for quite a long time. It is, there- 
fore, very expensive and consequently impracticable for ordinary 
stock. Moreover birds apparently cured are likely to become the 
source of infection for later outbreaks. 

Robinson well says : "I have cured many very bad cases, but 
quit treating them years ago, because I found that as long as I 
cured roup I had more roup to cure." No better advice than 
is implied in this could be given. If the stock is only of ordi- 
nary value it is better to kill all birds that develop the disease. 
If the flock is badly infected and the disease appears again and 
again when conditions favor its development, it is better to dis- 
pose of the flock and disinfect thoroughly, using new runs when 



lOO POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

starting again. New stock may be obtained from uninfected 
flocks or from incubator chickens raised on a fresh range. 

In the case of vakiable show birds treatment may perhaps 
be advisable. 

Harrison and Streit give the following methods of treating 
roup : 

''The germs of roup are not very resistant; they can easily 
be destroyed when present in cultures, or somewhere outside 
the animal; but in the animal tissue, they are very difficult to 
kill, because they penetrate into the tissue; and unless this too 
is killed, the germs continue living for a long time." 

"Roup may be cured by remedies, if the treatment is careful 
and judicious. Obstinately reappearing false membranes can be 
successfully treated by burning the diseased tissue with a strong 
acid (hydrochloric acid 50 per cent to 75 per cent) or other 
caustic, such as silver nitrate. If the eyes and nose are attacked, 
they have to be carefully washed, at least twice a day, with an 
antiseptic solution, such as 2 per cent boracic acid in a decoction 
of chamomile flowers, or ^ per cent solution of corrosive sub- 
limate. Thus the micro-organisms are killed or at least, the 
diseased products which are discharged are removed, and the 
irritation caused by them; also the transformation into large 
cheesy masses is prevented." 

"We had chickens badly afifected with roup of the eyes, which 
were cured with boracic acid and chamomile. On account of 
the smallness of the nostrils and nasal canals, it is very difficult 
to get the antiseptic solutions into the nose and nasal cavities ; 
but it can be done with a small syringe. If this treatment is 
too troublesome, then the nostrils, at least, should be washed 
and opened several times a day, to allow the secretions to pass 
away. We have treated chickens for 14 days by daily washing 
with a 2^ per cent solution of creolin and glycerine. After the 
washings, small plugs of cotton wool, filled with mixture, were 
placed in the nostrils and lachrymal ducts. This remedy did not 
cure the roup, although the same mixture readily kills the roup 
bacillus in cultures in from 2 to 3 minutes. The greatest hind- 
rance to a sure cure by remedies which have been used locally, 
is the ability of the germ to penetrate into the tissue and the 
many secondary cavities of the nostrils which cannot be reached 
by the antiseptic." 

"Another method of treatment which gives excellent results. 



POUI^TRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. lOI 

especially in the early stages of roup, is the use of i to 2 per 
cent of permanganate of potash. Fowls are treated in the fol- 
lowing manner: The nostrils are pressed together between 
thumb and forefinger in the direction of the beak two or three 
times. Pressure should also be applied between nostrils and 
eyes in an upward direction. This massage helps to loosen the 
discharge in the nostrils and eyes. The bird's head is then 
plunged into the solution of permanganate of potash for 20 or 
30 seconds, in fact the head may be kept under the solution as 
long as the bird can tolerate it. The solution is thus distributed 
through the nostrils and other canals and has an astringent and 
slight disinfecting action. This treatment should be given twice 
a day and continued until all symptoms have disappeared." 

"If there are solid tumors in the eyelids, they should be 
opened so that the skin may bleed freely. The cheesy matter 
should be removed and the surrounding membrane touched with 
a 5 per cent carbolic acid or silver nitrate solution, and then 
a cotton plug put in again to prevent the cavity from healing too 
quickly. We have cured chickens in this way in about a fort- 
night." 

''As all these methods of treatment demand a good deal of time 
and care, they cannot well be used for whole flocks, but the more 
valuable fowls may be treated in this manner. Farmers and 
poultrymen should first try the permanganate of potash method 
of treatment as it is the easiest to employ." 

''Food remedies influence roup only by strengthening the fowls 
and assisting nature to throw off or conquer the disease." 

Sanborn (Reliable Poultry Remedies) recommends the use of 
an atomizer to apply the disinfecting solutions to the nasal pas- 
sages and mouth. 

He recommends the following solution for a spray for all the 
mucous surfaces : 

Extract of witch hazel, 4 tablespoons, 
Liquid carbolic acid, 3 drops, 
Water, 2 tablespoons. 
He applies the spray twice a day squeezing the bulb 5 times for 
each nostril and twice for the mouth. 

Salmon recommends washing the cavities of the nose and 
throat with peroxide of hydrogen, diluted i to 3 times with 
water. 



I02 POULTRY DISEASES AND THKIR TREATMENT. 

The birds which are being treated should be kept in a dry, 
warm, well ventilated room with good nourishing food. The 
drinking water should be frequently changed. 

Prognosis. In infected flocks this disease caused a direct an- 
nual loss of 10 to 15 per cent of the flock. Also many birds 
contract a chronic form of the disease which afifects them for 
months or years. Careful individual treatment will save the 
lives of many birds, but such treatment is economically inadvis- 
able except in case of very valuable birds. 

"Pip" (Inflammation of the Mouth). 

Robinson describes "pip" as follows : " Tip' is a term in very 
common use among poultry keepers, and applied chiefly to a 
symptom occurring in many cases of cold or fever when the nos- 
trils being obstructed and the fowls breathing through the mouth 
the skin of the mouth and tongue become hard and dry, and 
a bony tip may form on the tongue by the hardening and drying 
of the skin of that member, this condition being aggravated 
when catarrhal discharges adhere to the skin and dry and accu- 
mulate." 

Etiology. It would appear to be the case that the symptoms 
above described originated from different causes in different 
cases. The trouble may be due to specific infection, though a 
particular organism has not yet been definitely isolated as the 
cause. In some cases the symptom is apparently purely physi- 
ological, arising from a failure of the mucus-secreting glands to 
function properly, owing to a lowered physiological condition. 

Treatment. The essential points in the treatment of this dis- 
eased condition is first to treat the primary cause (cold, catarrh, 
etc.). In removing the scale or ''pip" gentle measures are to 
be followed, otherwise a raw surface likely to ulcerate, will be 
left. 

The following advice as to treatment, given by Salmon, is 
excellent. 

"In case of simply drying of the mouth, it is suflicient to 
moisten the tongue with a few drops of a mixture of equal 
parts of glycerine and water. In case there is redness of the 
membrane, or if the epithelium is beginning to separate, or if 
a deposit has formed, add 20 grains of chlorate of potash to 
each ounce of this mixture. An excellent remedy for such cases 
is made by dissolving 15 grains of boric acid in an ounce of 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. IO3 

water. Both of these sokitions are harmless and may be freely 
and frequently applied. When the epithelium is separating, it 
should be kept moistened with the glycerine mixture and its 
detachment may be somewhat facilitated by loosening it with a 
pin or the point of a penknife, but great care should be exercised, 
the sensitive tissues should not be touched and no blood should 
be drawn." 

Prognosis. In and of itself ''pip" is not a serious matter. It 
is, however, usually associated with other disorders of the res- 
piratory system, which may be very serious. Regarding this 
matter Salmon says : "The exaggerated idea prevalent as to the 
dangerous character of 'pip,' probably arises from its being asso- 
ciated with serious diseases of the respiratory organs and from 
the fatal results which follow the forcible tearing away of the 
dried epithelium, leaving a bleeding and ulcerating surface." 

Canker. 

Membranes formed in diphtheritic roup are sometimes called 
canker, but there are frequently found cheesy patches on the 
nmcous membrane of the mouth or tongue which are not asso- 
ciated with roup. These growths are frequently, at least, the 
result of a traumatic injury to the membrane. Male birds fre- 
quently have canker where they have been picked in the mouth 
bv other males when fighting. The growths are made up almost 
entirely of pus germs. These growths should probably be 
considered as suppurating wounds. An unhealthy condition of 
the mucous membrane of the mouth due to digestive disorders is 
sometimes accompanied by spots of canker. 

A good treatment for canker is undiluted creolin applied with 
a cotton swab. The swab should be held against each sore for 
a short time. The whole surface of each patch should be 
treated. Another good treatment is to wash the sores with hy- 
drogen peroxide i part and water i part. 

TJirush. 

This term is also sometimes incorrectly applied to the false 
membranes of diphtheria but there are at least two cases of true 
thrush on record. That is, in two cases microscopic examina- 
tion has shown that the patches, which in both these cases were 
in the lower part of the oesophagus and crop, were made up 
of spores and filaments of the fungus Sac char otnyces albicans. 



104 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

This fungus causes thrush in children and calves. This disease 
may also occasionally affect the mouth. It is impossible to 
distinguish it from other diseases causing similar formations 
except by microscopic examination. The treatment is the same 
as for canker. 

Aspergillosis (Mycosis of the Air Passages]. 

This is a very common disease of poultry, often mistaken for 
tuberculosis. In adult fowls it is frequent cause of the con- 
dition known as "going light," while in young chickens it prob- 
ably ranks next to white diarrhoea as a lethal agent. 

The discussion of this disease here relates primarily to adult 
fowls. Aspergillosis in young chicks is treated in Chap. XIX. 

Diagnosis. Salmon gives the following account of the symp- 
toms of this disease. "In the early stages of the disease no 
symptoms are noticed, and it is only after it has progressed 
considerably that these become apparent. The affected birds 
do not follow the flock ; they are very weak, scarcely able to 
stand, and consequently remain by themselves and move about 
very little. They remain in a recumbent position, resting upon 
the sternum, are sleepy, and, if forced to run, soon fall from ex- 
haustion. The plumage is dull and rough, the w^ings are pen- 
dant, the eyelids partly closed, the head depressed. The respi- 
raton is accelerated and accompanied by a rattling or snoring 
sound, particularly during the expiration, and becomes difficult 
and labored, the bird opening its beak from time to time, in 
order to take a long inspiration. The temperature of the body is 
elevated, the thirst increased and the appetite is diminished or 
disappears. There is more or less catarrh of the trachea and 
bronchi, with emaciation and diarrhea leading to death from ex- 
haustion in from i to 8 weeks. When the disease is limited to 
the air-sacs of the interior of the body, emaciation may be the 
only symptom; but when it extends to the bones there may be 
lameness with swollen and painful joints." 

"In examining the birds after death, the seat of the disease 
may be found in the trachea, bronchi, lungs, and various air- 
sacs, and other internal organs. It is sometimes, though rarely, 
found in the nostrils and in the air-sacs of the interior of the 
bones. Two kinds of lesions are found. There may be tuber- 
cles resembling those of tuberculosis. These are whitish or yel- 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 105 

lowish nodules varying from the size of a pinhead to that of a 
pea. They may be isolated or joined together in masses of con- 
siderable proportions. These tubercles are generally found in 
the depth of the tissues, and even in the marrow of the bones. 
On the mucous membrane lining the air-tubes and air-sacs, the 
second form of disease process is seen. This consists of a 
membranous formation, ji of an inch or more in thickness, 
which bears upon its surface a growth of the fungus. These 
membranou's patches are at first soft, but become firmer with 
age, and are yellowish or greenish in color, resembling a fibrino- 
purulent exudate. They adhere closely to the mucous membrane 
which is there thickened and inflamed. The air-sacs are some- 
times obstructed by these growths which may in time become 
caseous or even calcareous. These changes may also be seen in 
the intestines, the mesentery, the liver and in other organs." 

"The membrane lining the air-passages may, also, be found 
ulcerated, and the ulcers may be either naked or covered with 
a growth of the fungus." 

''In the very acute and rapid cases, the lungs may simply 
show inflammation, or there may be formation of pus or 
abscesses in the lungs, kidneys, liver and spleen as in pyaemia 
or septic infection. In some of these cases there may be exten- 
sive hemorrhages, either locally or throughout the body, and 
these may constitute the only apparent alterations." 

"A microscopic examination reveals the spores of filaments of 
the fungus in most of the lesions, whether these are acute or 
chronic. The nature of the disease may consequently be deter- 
mined by a post-mortem examination, but the diagnosis is uncer- 
tain and difiicult during the life of the bird." 

Etiology. The disease is caused by moulds of the genus As- 
pergillus which grow on the mucous membrane of the air pas- 
sage. The four parasitic species in order of their importance are 
Aspergillus fumigatiis, Aspergillus nigrescens, Aspergillus glau- 
cus, Aspergillus candidus. The appearance of one of these 
moulds, when greatly magnified is shown in fig. 22. 



I06 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT 



Av\l// • .H|V 




'-^^ ' 










-J-r^u 






Fig. 22. Aspergillus 



fiuiiigatits. Greatly 
and Buckley). 



M^" 



enlarged. (After Mohler 



These moulds and their spores occur on dead organic material 
like straw, grain, etc. They are inhaled in breathing or swal- 
lowed with the food. This being the case the importance of 
avoiding musty litter, and mouldy or musty grain of all kinds 
is apparent. As with most other diseases the resistance of the 
individual against infection is here an important matter. Some 
fowls will be able to stand musty litter and grain wdthout any 
harm, while others will promptly develop aspergillosis. When 
once present in a flock aspergillosis is probably transmitted from 
generation to generation through the eggs. 

Treatment. The disease is prevented by having clean, dry, 
well ventilated houses and avoiding the use of mouldy litter or 
grain. \'igorous birds under sanitary conditions are fairly re- 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THKIR TREATMENT. 10/ 

sistant. No medical treatment is known to be effective. Salmon 
gives a list of treatments which have been suggested and says 
"No form of treatment yet suggested, however, is very prom- 
ising and the effort should be to prevent rather than cure." All 
birds that die should be burned or buried. 

Prognosis. The disease in adult fowls is ordinarily not recog- 
nized as such until an affected bird comes to post-mortem at 
which time the prognosis is certainly extremely unfavorable. 
So far as concerns ridding a poultry plant of the disease, how- 
ever, the outlook is favorable if energetic sanitary measures 
along the lines indicated above are applied. 

Congestion of the Lungs. 

Congestion of the lungs is a distension of the blood vessels 
which make up the vascular portion of those organs. The 
pressure of these distended vessels may close the smaller air 
passages, or a vessel may burst, filling the bronchi. In either 
case the patient soon suffocates. 

Diagnosis. — The symptoms of this disease are difficult rapid 
breathing, sleepiness and an indisposition to move. A bloody 
mucus sometimes flows from the mouth. The comb is dark red 
or bluish from lack of oxygen in the blood. Symptoms appear 
suddenly and death occurs within a few hours. 

Etiology.— "^^hh disease is caused by chilling the surface of 
the body. This contracts the surface vessels and a larger vol- 
ume of blood is sent to the internal organs. The pressure on 
the small elastic vessels of the lungs is too great and they either 
close the air passages by pressing against them or the vessel 
walls are ruptured by the internal pressure and the air passages 
become filled with blood. This disease most often occurs in 
denuded birds (hens during moulting or young birds which have 
failed to feather out) or small chicks which have been exposed 
to cold or allowed to run out in cold, wet weather. 

Treatment. — The rapid course of the disease makes treat- 
ment impracticable. Prevention is the only cure. Birds should 
be well nourished with plenty of green food and should be 
especially protected from cold and wet when moulting. Also 
chicks which are in a stage between down (chick) and juvenal 
feathers need special protection. This disease often attacks 
brooder chicks and indicates something wrong with the brood- 
ing. The cause should be immediately sought out and removed, 



108 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

•or considerable loss will follow from continued exposure of the 
flock. 

Prognosis. — This disease is usually fatal in a few minutes or 
hours after its symptoms are noted. According to Salmon the 
patient sometimes develops pneumonia. 

Pneumonia. 

This disease is a step beyond congestion of the lungs. The 
vessels are not only distended but liquid escapes through their 
walls and coagulates in the air spaces. The lung of a chick 
dead of pneumonia is dark colored and firm and heavier than 
water. A normal lung floats but a lung filled with this coagu- 
lated serum sinks. 

Diagnosis. — The symptoms resemble those of congestion of 
the lungs. Salmon gives the following symptoms : ''The breath- 
ing is rapid, difficult and painful. There may be coughing with 
discharge from the mouth or nostrils of thick, adhesive mucus, 
grayish or yellowish in color or tinged with blood. The bird 
stands with ruffied plumage, drooping wings, head drawn in, 
and every appearance of severe illness. There is loss of appe- 
tite from the first, with thirst and constipation. 

On examination of the- lungs after death one or both of these 
organs are found dark in color, engorged with blood and solidi- 
fi.ed. The pneumonia may take either one of two forms. There 
may be what is known as broncho-pneumonia, in which case the 
inflammation affects more particularly the bronchi and the lung 
is not much solidified. The bronchial tubes in this case are 
more or less filled with thick mucus and exudate. In the other 
form, called croupous pneumonia, the tissue of the lung is prin- 
cipally affected. It is then that the lung is solidified by the 
filling up of the air-cells. A piece of lung so aft'ected, if dropped 
into a bucket of water, sinks to the bottom, while healthy lung 
tissue will float. The bronchial tubes and air-sacs are also in 
.some cases filled with a thick, yellowish fibrinous exudate which 
blocks up these air-passages and becomes partly solidified." 

Etiology. — The cause of pneumonia in birds is not known. 
Salmon suggests that it may be caused in birds as the similar 
disease is known to be in some of the mammals and man. Rob- 
inson briefly summarizes Salmon's statement as follows : "He 
says it is supposed that to produce pneumonia there must be 
with the causes that produce congestion of the lungs the agency 



POUI^TRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. IO9 

of a germ, a species of bacteria, harmless when the lung is in- 
normal condition, but harmful when conditions which cause 
congestion are present." 

Treatment. — Ordinarily it will not be advisable to treat this 
disease. A cure is unusual and involves such an amount of 
care and nursing as to make it a most nnprofitahle proposition. 
The following treatments have been advised by different per- 
sons. 

''i. — 'Keep the bird in a room of about 70 degrees, with steam 
from boiling water if possible. Give every 6 hours i grain 
phenacetin, and i grain sulpho-carbolate of zinc, mixed with 
bread crumbs enough to make a pill. Feed on raw eggs and 
milk. Tincture aconite in the drinking water, or i drop every 
2 hours in the ^gg and milk, will help control the hard breath- 
ing. If successful in saving the bird, build up its strength with 
tonics such as nux vomica or quinine.' (Sanborn.) 

"2. — 'The bird should be immediately housed and kept warm. 
Counter irritation must be applied over the region of the lungs 
by wetting the skin under the feathers on the back with tincture 
of iodine. Stimulants should be administered 3 or 4 times a 
day — 2 drops of spirits of camphor and 10 drops of brandy in 
a teaspoonful of warm milk. Soft, nutritious diet, especially 
chopped beef, is necessary. Beaten ^gg and port wine is also 
useful. Three or 4 drops of chlorodyne may be giYtn in a tea- 
spoonful of linseed tea to relieve the more distressing symp- 
toms; and ultimately, if the case progresses favorably, mineral 
tonics and cod liver oil are favorable in establishing conva- 
lescence.' (Hill.) 

"3. — Tlace bird in a warm room and cover with a piece of 
blanket, leaving the head uncovered that it may have plenty of 
air. Give linseed tea frequently in small quantities. To make 
this tea : Pour a pint of boiling water on an ounce of flaxseed, 
and keep hot, but not boiling, for two hours. Strain to remove 
the seeds. The liquid may then be used as a drink, or medicines 
may be given in it. Dissolve enough nitrate of potash in the 
drink to give the bird about i grain 3 times a day. If the bird 
i^ failing and becomes sleepy, with comb turning dark, mix 15 
drops of tincture of digitalis with i ounce of water, and give 
10 drops of the mixture every 2 hours. To give medicine use 
a medicine dropper, and be careful to avoid getting it into the 



no 



POUI.TRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



air passages. When the bird begins to improve, give a grain 



of quinine, or lo drops of cod Hver oil twice a day/ 
mon.)" 

Tuberculosis. 



(Sal- 



This disease in birds does not usually affect the .respiratory 
system, but is more commonly confined to the abdominal vis- 
cera, and is discussed with the diseases of the organs of ali- 
mentary tract (Chap. V), 

The Air-Sac Mite. 

A species of mite (Cytodites nudus) infects the air-sacs and 
bronchi of poultry. 

Diagnosis. — When the birds are not badly infested there are 
no external symptoms. If badly infested the bird may become 
anaemic and listless and finally die of exhaustion. Or, if the air 
passages are seriously obstructed by the collection of parasites 
and mucus there will be a rattling in the throat and coughing, 
and death may result from suffocation. The presence of the 
parasites is often found only on examination of dead birds. 
They appear as a yellow or white dust, each particle of which 
is a mite. If closely watched the particles may be seen to move. 

Etiology. — The mite probably 
enters the air-sacs by crawling 
in the nostrils and finding its 
way down the trachea and bron- 
chi to the sacs. The parasites 
are able to live only a short time 
outside the bird's body. The 
mouth parts of these mites are 
modified into sucking tubes. 
They attack the mucous mem- 
brane of the air-sacs and bron- 
chi. When the number of para- 
sites is small they cause no seri- ,-,. /- , ^-^ ^ o^u 
•^ Fig. 23. Cytodites nudus. The 

OUS inconvenience to the bird, air sac mite. Greatly enlarged. 
When there are a large number (After Theobald). 
present they may cause inflammation of the membrane and secre- 
tion of mucus or they may seriously obstruct the air passages. 
Treatment. — Treatment of infested birds is probably useless. 
Feeding sulphur with the food or compelling the birds to inhale 




POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. Ill 

the fumes of burning sulphur or burning tar or the steam of 
boiHng tar water has been recommended. 

If a flock is infested with this parasite it is best when 
possible to start a new flock with incubator chicks raised on a 
new range and carefully protected from infection from the old 
flock. Or stock may be purchased from an uninfested flock. 
Birds with this parasite should not be bought or sold for breed- 
ing or laying purposes, as the flock into which they are intro- 
duced will become infested from them. Since this parasite can 
not live long outside the bird's body, the houses, runs, etc., do 
not remain infested long after all the diseased birds have been 
removed. 

Prognosis. — A bird once infected is probably never free from 
the parasite but may live a long time little harmed by its presence. 



CHAPTER XIIL 



Diseases oe the Circulatory System. 

Pericarditis (Inflammation of the Pericardium, Dropsy of the 

Heart Sac). 

This disease is often found associated with other diseases of 
the circulatory system and with diseases of the lungs and air- 
sacs and also with soreness of the joints. 

Diagnosis. — A dififerential diagnosis of this disease during life 
is not usually possible. Salmon gives the following symptoms : 
''There is great weakness, difficult breathing, the head being 
thrown backwards, and the breath drawn through the mouth in 
order to obtain sufficient air. If forced to run the bird soon 
falls. In a case observed by Hill there was tumultuous action 
of the heart and occasional spasms." Examination of a bird 
dead from this disease shows the heart sac full of serous liquid 
and sometimes the cavity is divided by false membranes which 
may attach to the heart as well as to the pericardium. 

Etiology. — The causes of this inflammation are not known. 
It may result from exposure to cold or dampness. 

Treatment. — Treatment is impossible since the disease can not 
be diagnosed until after death. Successive cases in the same 
flock indicate exposure of the flock to cold or wet weather or 
to confining the birds in insanitary houses. These conditions 
should be remedied. Salmon also recommends in such cases 
"2 to 4 grains of bicarbonate of soda to each bird daily in the 



drinking water. 



Endocarditis (Inflammation of the Internal Membranes of 

the Heart). 

In the examination of dead birds it is sometimes found that 
the membrane lining the heart is reddened and coagulated lymph 
may adhere to it. Little is known of this disease in fowls. It 
cannot be distinguished from pericarditis except by an examina- 
tion of the heart. The cause and treatment suggested for that 
disease probably apply equally in these cases. 



rOULTRY DISDASEJS AND THKIR TREATMENT. II3 

Myocarditis dipthcritica. 

According to Ziirn, Bollinger has described a bacterial disease 
of the heart and blood vessels of fowls and pigeons. The dis- 
ease is caused by a bacterium which resembles the bacterium of 
roup. The disease attacks the lining membrane of the heart and 
blood vessels, causing inflammation and the breaking down of the 
tissue. It especially affects the valves of the heart and aorta, 
where round or oval colonies of the bacteria are found on the 
membrane. In these patches fibrin and red and white corpuscles 
are mingled with the organisms. The walls of the small vessels 
of the lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys and intestines are also affected. 
The hver, spleen, and kidneys are enlarged. The bacteria are 
numerous in these organs as well as in the blood. 

Little is known of the frequence of the occurrence of this dis- 
ease and nothing of methods of treatment. 

Enlargement of the Heart {Hypertrophy). 

The heart of a fowl is sometimes enlarged. According to 
Cadeac this enlargement most frequently affects the right side 
of the heart. The muscle may be fatty and degenerate. 

Diagnosis. — The distinctive symptom of this disease is a very 
rapid beating of the heart. 

Etiology. — The cause of this hypertrophy of the heart muscle 
is not known, but it is probably due to some derangement in the 
nutrition of the muscle. The palpitations are increased by ex- 
citement or fright. 

Treatment. — The disease is not usually recognized while the 
bird is alive. Treatment is therefore not possible. 

Prognosis. — A hypertrophied heart may function for a long 
time. The violent beating may cause rupture of a blood vessel ; 
sometimes several vessels are ruptured at the same time. 

Rupture of the Heart and Large Blood Vessels. 

Internal hemorrhage due to the rupture of the heart or large 
blood vessels often occurs in full blooded fowls. 

Diagnosis — The bird becomes weak and drowsy, passes into a 
comatose condition and dies with the characteristic appearance 
associated with bleeding to death. 

Etiology. — In full blooded fowls any excitement or over-exer- 
tion which causes an increase in the rate of heart beat and an 

8 



114 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

increased blood pressure may result in a rupture of the heart 
or one of the large vessels. 

Treatment. — The accident can not be predicted and treatment 
is impossible. 

Prognosis. — The bird dies in a short time. 

DISEASES OE THE BLOOD. 

Various cases of an alteration in the number of white cor- 
puscles in the blood of fowls have been described. Most of these 
descriptions are based on from one to three cases, and from the 
descriptions it appears that the investigators have found several 
different blood diseases. Most of these diseases when tested 
did not prove infectious. They are impossible to distinguish 
except by microscopic examination and most of them are prob- 
ably quite rare. Only one of these diseases seems to be of any 
economic importance. This is Infectious Leukccmia, first de- 
scribed by Moore (Ann. Rep. Bur. An. Ind. 1895-1896). 

Infec tio us Lcuk armia . 

This is a bacterial disease often mistaken for fowl cholera but 
caused by a different species of bacteria and the lesions produced 
are somewhat different. . 

Diagnosis. — The following symptomatology is quoted from 
Moore : "From the statement of the owners of the fowls in the 
different outbreaks and from the appearance of those in which 
the disease was artificially produced, little can be positively 
recorded concerning the distinctive or characteristic symptoms. 
The only fowl examined ante-mortem from the natural outbreaks 
was first seen only a few hours before death, when it was unable 
to stand. If held in an upright position, the head hung down. 
There was a marked anaemic condition of the mucosa of the head. 
It had an elevation of nearly 3 degrees of temperature. An 
examination of the blood showed a marked diminution in the 
number of red corpuscles and an increase in the number of white 
ones. In the disease produced artificially by feeding cultures of 
the specific organism there was in most cases a marked drowsi- 
ness and general debility manifested from i to 4 days before 
death occurred. The period during which the prostration was 
complete varied from a few hours to two days. The mucous 
membranes and skin about the head became pale. There was 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. II5 

an elevation of from i to 4 degrees of temperature. The fever 
was of a continuous type." 

''Although the course of the disease in the different fowls was 
usually constant, there were many variations. In a few indi- 
viduals the time required for fatal results was from 2 to 3 weeks, 
but ordinarily death occurred in about 8 days after feeding the 
virus, the rise in temperature being detected about the third day 
and external symptoms about the fifth or sixth, occasionally not 
until a few hours before death. The symptoms observed in the 
cases produced by feeding correspond with those described by 
the owners of affected flocks." 

Dr. Moore found the only constant lesions to be in the blood 
and liver. The change in the blood as noted above was a de- 
crease in the number of white cells. The change in the liver is 
described by Moore as foUow^s : 

"The liver was somewhat enlarged and dark colored, except- 
ing in a few cases in which the disease was produced by intra- 
venous injections. A close inspection showed the surface to be 
sprinkled with minute grayish areas. The microscopic examina- 
tion showed the blood spaces to be distended. The hepatic cells 
were frequently changed, so that they stained very feebly, and 
not infrequently the cells were observed in which the liver cells 
appeared to be dead and the intervening spaces infiltrated with 
round cells. The changes in the hepatic tissue are presumably 
secondary to the engorgement of the organ with blood." 

Dawson's diagnosis of the disease (An. Rep. Bur. An. Ind. 
1898, p. 350) differs somewhat from the one given by Moore. 

It is very difficult to distinguish this disease from fowl cholera 
except by identifying the bacteria which produce the diseases. 
Moore contrasts the characteristic lesions in the appended col- 
umns : 

Fowl cholera Infectious leukaemia. 

1. Duration of the disease from i. Duration of the disease from 

a few hours to several days. a few hours to several days. 

2. Elevation of temperature. 2. Elevation of temperature. 

3. Diarrhea. 3. Diarrhea very rare. 

4. Intestines deeply reddened. 4. Intestines pale. 

5. Intestinal contents liquid, 5. Intestinal contents normal in 

muco-purulent, or blood consistency. 

stained. 6. Heart usually pale and dotted 

6. Heart dotted with ecchymoses. with grayish points, due to 

cell infiltration. 



Il6 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

Fowl cholera Infectious leukaemia 

7. Lungs affected, hyperaemic or 7. Lungs normal , excepting in 

pneumonic. modified cases. 

8. Specific organisms appear in 8. Specific organisms compara- 

large numbers in the blood tively few in the blood and 

and organs. organs. 

9. Blood pale (cause not deter- 9. Blood pale, marked diminu- 

mined). tion in the number of red 

10. Condition of leucocytes not de- corpuscles. 

termined. 10. Increase in the number of 

leucocytes. 

Attention should be called to the fact that as yet there seems 
not to have been a careful study of the condition of the blood in 
fowl cholera. Dr. Salmon observed many changes in this fluid 
which may have been similar to or identical with those herein 
recorded. 

On p. 201 of Dr. Moore's paper he gives the method of differ- 
entiating the two bacteria. This is, of course, dependent on 
microscopic examination and cultural tests. A full description 
of Bacterium sanguinarium is given by Moore on pp. 188-191 of 
the paper cited above. 

Etiology. — The disease is caused by a non-motile, rod-shaped 
bacterium {Bacterium sanguinarium.) This bacterium causes 
the disease when injected into the blood or when fed. In a few 
cases fowls are known to have contracted the disease by picking 
up the droppings of infected fowls. 

More recent work* indicates that there is at least one sort of 
transmissible fowl leukaemia which is dependent upon a filter- 
able virus, rather than upon a visible organism. 

Moore says: ''This disease of fowls has not been found in 
flocks where a good sanitary regime has been enforced. It is 
highly probable that it is a filth disease, being dependent upon 
unfavorable environments quite as much as the specific organism 
for the ability to run a rapidly fatal course and of spreading to 
the entire flock." 

Treatment. — Prevention is the only known treatment. A 
maintenance of generally sanitary conditions and the avoidance 
of the introduction of diseased birds are effectual. If the dis- 



*Ellerman, V., and Bang. O., Cent. f. Bakt., Orig., 1908 xlvi, p. 595; 
Ztschr f. Hyg. u. inf .Krnkh., 1909, Ixiii, p. 231. 

Hirchfield, H., and Jacoby, M., Ztschr f. klin. Med. 1909-10, Ixix, 
p. 107. 



POUI.TRY DISe:aSI:S AND THEIR TREATMENT. II7 

ease appears in the flock separate the diseased birds, disinfect 
the premises, and place the flock under sanitary conditions. The 
disease will probably disappear, as it is difficult experimentally 
to maintain an infection when the birds are kept under sanitary 
conditions. 

Prognosis. — Diseased birds usually die in from a few hours to 
two weeks, but they may recover. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



DiSKASKS OF THE NERVOUS SySTEM. 
Apoplexy {Hemorrhage of the Brain). 

In this disease the bird usually drops dead or paralyzed with- 
out showing any previous sign of illness. The only abnormality 
found on examination of the dead bird is clotted blood on the 
brain. 

Etiology. — The cause of this disease is the rupture of a blood 
vessel in the brain and the pressure on the brain due to the blood 
which escapes. The cause of this rupture may be an unhealthy 
condition (usually a fatty degeneration) of the walls of the 
brain blood vessels. The immediate cause of the rupture is 
increased blood pressure due to fright, over-exertion, or strain 
in laying (hens often die on the nest). This disease is more apt 
to attack very fat birds and the degeneration of the vessels is 
supposed to be due to too rich food or to overfeeding. 

Treatment. — Treatment of the affected birds is useless. So- 
called "apoplexy cures," of which there are some on the market, 
should be left strictly alone by the poultryman. Only very rarely 
can apoplexy be recognized till after the bird is dead, and then 
all the pills or potions ever invented for the purpose of swind- 
ling a gullible public will be of no avail. If several successive 
deaths from apoplexy occur, modify the ration, giving more 
green food and less meat and corn. See that the birds have 
plenty of range. 

Prognosis. — The bird is usually found dead or dies in a little 
while. 

Heat Prostrations. 

In very warm weather heat prostrations may occur, especially 
among heavy fowls. This is sometimes considered to be the 
same thing as apoplexy. The birds suddenly drop insensible 
or paralyzed. 



POUI.TRY dise:asi:s and th^ir tre:atmi:nt. 119 

Etiology. — The cause is pressure on the brain, due to heat, 
but the blood vessels are not ruptured as in apoplexy. 

Treatment.— MM cases may be treated by applying cold 
water to the head and keeping the bird in a cool, quiet place. 

Prognosis. — Mild cases may recover. Others usually result 
fatally in a short time. As a preventative avoid overcrowding 
in hot weather. If the range is not provided with natural shade, 
supply artificially shaded places in which the birds may find 
protection from the hot sun during the middle of the day. 

Congestion of the Brain {Vertigo, Cerebral Hypercemia) . 

A number of abnormal physiological conditions may lead to 
a congestion of blood in the brain. This is usually associated 
with a diseased condition of other organs, and hence often 
occurs as a complication wdth other diseases. It is sometimes 
due to injury of the head. 

Diagnosis. — Pearson (Diseases of Poultry) gives the follow- 
ing diagnosis of this disease : "It is characterized by staggering, 
stupor, unusual movements such as walking backward or walk- 
ing in a circle, unusual and irregular movements with the wings 
and feet and twisting the head backward or to the side. Some- 
times the bird will fall on its side and make peculiar movements 
with its feet and wings as though attempting to run or fly." 

Etiology. — The congestion of the brain is sometimes due to 
blow\s on the head or to fright or other intense excitement. 
Often it is associated with acute indigestion or with the presence 
of parasitic intestinal worms. 

Treatment. — Apply cold water to the head. Administer a lax- 
ative (2 teaspoonsful of castor oil, or 30 grains of Epsom salts 
given in water or i>^ grains of calomel). Keep the fowl in a 
cool, quiet place. If this treatment is not efficient Salmon 
recommends i to 5 grains of bromide of potassium dissolved in 
I tablespoonful of water 3 times a day. If intestinal worms 
are found in the droppings after the laxative, treat for the re- 
moval of these parasites (p. 79). 

Prognosis. — The bird may recover if the cause is removed. 

Epilepsy. 

This somewhat rare disease is characterized by occasional fits. 
Between these the birds appear normal. 



I20 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

Diagnosis. — Pearson (Diseases of Poultry) describes the be- 
havior of the bird during the fit as follows: "The fowl will 
make beating movements with its wings, its legs will draw up 
and it will fall down, sometimes turn over on its back, or it may 
stand upright with its legs apart, head turned backward and 
mouth and eyes opening and closing spasmodically." 

This spasm passes away after a time and leaves the bird in a 
normal condition. 

Etiology. — It is often impossible to discover any cause of the 
disease. It is said to be sometimes caused by tumors on the 
brain and sometimes by intestinal worms. 

Treatment. — The only cases that can be treated are those 
caused by the presence of intestinal worms. An affected bird 
should be put up and given a laxative and if intestinal worms 
are passed treat the patient for the removal of these parasites 

(P- 79)- 

The birds may live some time with occasional fits and may 
recover. Cases caused by intestinal worms are definitely cured 
by removing the parasites. 



CHAPTER XV. 



Diseases of the Kidneys, Rheumatism and Limberneck. 

Gout. 

Gout is a rather common disease among fowls. It is due to 
a failure of the kidneys to eliminate the urates. The uric acid 
content of the blood is greatly increased and the urates are 
deposited on the surface of the visceral organs, in the tissues 
of the urinary apparatus and around the joints in the form of 
crystals of urate of soda. In fowls two forms of the disease 
occur; the visceral, and the articular. 

Visceral Gout. 

In visceral gout the only symptoms shown by an affected bird 
are a loss in weight or "going light" and a slight yellowish tinge 
to the skin, comb and wattles. The bird has a good and often 
abnormal appetite. Death occurs suddenly. An examination 
of the abdominal cavity shows that all the organs and serous 
membranes are covered with a chalky or talcum-like powder. 
This pow^der has a mother-of-pearl luster and on microscopic 
examination is seen to be composed of small needle-like crystals. 
These are crystals of urate of soda. These crystals are also 
found in the urinary organs. The ureter and collecting tubules 
are often filled with a mass of these crystals. Drs. Hebrant 
and Antoine give the following test for the urate of soda. 

Dissolve the crystals in nitric acid and evaporate in a watch 
glass. This gives a red onion peel mass which turns purplish 
blue on the addition of a solution of caustic potash. 

Articular Gout. 

In this form of the disease the crystals of urate of soda are 
in nodules around the joints especially of the feet and toes. 
These nodules sometimes appear like strings of beads on the 
under side of the toes. They contain a white or creamy thick 
liquid composed mostly of the crystals. They are at first soft 
but later become very firm. The presence of the nodules causes 
stiffness and soreness of the joints and the birds become indis- 



122 POUI.TRY DISEASES AND THKIR TREATMENT. 

posed to stand or walk. Sometimes the nodules ulcerate, dis- 
charging a stringy pus and exposing the cavities of the joints 
to the air. The development of fistulas cause the death of the 
bones. The disease is slow in its development and advanced 
stages are seen only in old birds. The birds lose weight and in 
advanced stages diarrhea sets in and death from exhaustion 
follows. 

Early stages of this disease are often mistaken for rheuma- 
tism on account of the stiffness and soreness of the joints. 

Etiology. — The cause of this disease is a disturbance of the 
normal physiology of excretion so that the uric acid which 
should be excreted by the kidneys is first retained in the blood 
and then deposited within the body as crystals of urate of soda. 
The disturbance is probably due to a diet which is too rich in 
proteids. 

Treatment. — In case of articular gout Salmon recommends 
rubbing the affected joints with camphorated or carbolic oint- 
ment. In well developed cases it is more profitable to kill the 
birds than to treat them. \"isceral gout is not usually recog- 
nized v.'hile the bird is alive. Prevention is the only reliable 
treatment for either form of gout. Birds should be kept under 
sanitary conditions and given plenty of green food. When sev- 
eral birds develop the disease it is well to give the whole flock 
Epsom salts (^ to ^ teaspoonful per bird) and to reduce the 
amount of meat scrap and increase the quantity of green food. 

Prognosis. — The disease, especially the articular form, is 
chronic and advanced cases are only found in old birds. Badly 
diseased birds may live a long time. Mild cases may recover 
on corrected diet. 

Other Diseased Conditions of the Kidjieys. 

In the examination of dead birds cases are often observed 
where the kidneys are diseased. They are often enlarged. 
Sometimes they contain dark points caused by the rupture of 
small blood vessels, and in other cases they may contain ab- 
scesses. Alicro-organisms have been obtained from some cases 
of diseased kidneys. Nothing is yet known of the causes of 
these specific diseased conditions in poultry. Some of the cases 
of under-development, especially of pullets, are apparently due 
to enlarged kidneys. In such cases the birds usually lose their 
appetite, become emaciated and their feathers are roughened. 
No dependable diagnosis of diseased kidneys can be made on 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THE:iR TREATMENT. 1 23 

the living fowl. When several cases occur care should be taken 
to see that the flock receives a balanced ration with plenty of 
green food, as diseased kidneys may occur from too much pro- 
tein in the food. 

Rheumatism. 

A lameness or stiffness is usually considered rheumatism. 
Many such cases are due to tuberculosis of the joints (p. 60), 
and others to articular gout (p. 121), but there are muscular 
and joint inflammations caused by exposure which are properly 
considered rheumatism. This disease is an inflammation of the 
connective tissues of the muscles and joints. 

Etiology. — It is caused by exposure to cold or dampness. The 
occurrence of several cases in the flock indicates something 
wrong in the housing conditions. 

Treatment. — The disease is prevented by keeping the fowls 
in dry, warm, well ventilated houses with well drained runs. 

Prognosis. — Fowls protected from further exposure and 
given a good ration with plenty of green food usually recover. 

Liniberneck. 

This is not properly a disease but a symptom which accom- 
panies several diseased conditions. A fowl is said to have 
limberneck when partial or entire nervous control of the neck 
muscles is lost. The neck may hang limp so that the head falls 
on the ground between the feet. Sometimes the bird is able to 
raise the head from the ground by making a great effort. 

A bird is sometimes said to have limberneck when the dorsal 
or lateral neck muscles are tense, the head drawn convulsively 
backward, but this is more often called ''wry-neck." 

Both limberneck and wry-neck are due to nervous disorders 
which arise from several different causes. ''Wry-neck" is usu- 
ally associated with direct brain or nerve irritation and occurs 
in epileptic spasms, but also sometimes occurs in rheumatism. 
Limberneck is usually associated with colic, acute indigestion, 
intestinal parasites, or ptomaine poisoning. 

Xo treatment for limberneck as such can be advised. Effort 
should be made to ascertain and cure the diseased condition 
which is responsible for this symptom. 

Cases due to rheumatism, colic, indigestion, intestinal para- 
sites, and some of those due to poisoning may recover, if the 
real cause can be ascertained and treated soon enough. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



ExTERNAi, Parasites. 

Vigilant and continuous attention is necessary to keep fowls 
-free from external parasites. At least 32 species of arachnids 
^nd insects are known to be parasitic on fowls. Some of these 
Hke the red mites visit their host only to take food and spend 
the rest of the time on the under side of the roosts, in cracks 
.and crevices and various other places of seclusion. Others like 
the lice normally stay on the birds, although occasionally some 
individuals crawl off, especially into the nest. Some of these 
parasites live upon the surface of the skin and upon the feathers, 
deriving their nourishment either by sucking the blood like the 
red mite, or by chewing the skin and feathers like the lice and 
some of the mites. Some of the mites, however, bore under 
the skin, causing skin diseases known as scabies or psoric dis- 
eases. The most common of these diseases are scabby or scaly 
leg and depluming scabies. 

The economic importance of these external parasites is very 
-great. Fowls infested with one or several of these species of 
parasites are not profitable. They make a smaller growth in 
the same time with the same food and their Ggg production is 
not equal to similar birds not so infested. Not only are they 
constantly robbed of some of their tissue and blood but their 
rest is disturbed. Sleep is as important to the normal physi- 
ology of a bird as it is to that of a man. 

Keeping a Poultry Plant Free from Bxtcrnal Parasites. 

It is not necessary for a poultryman to be able to distinguish 
the 32 species of parasites or to know their hfe histories in order 
to keep his plant free from them. It is only necessary to know 
-that some of them stay on the birds and can only be extermi- 
nated by treating the birds (usually with a powder) while others 
spend most of their time on the under sides of the roosts in 
•cracks and can best be exterminated by contact sprays contain- 
ing cresol or kerosene. A single application is not efficient in 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 1 25 

either case but treatment must be repeated 2 or 3 times at inter- 
vals of a few days to destroy those that hatch after the treat- 
ment or are concealed beyond its reach. A routine procedure 
by which a poultry plant can be kept free from parasites is very 
useful. The following method has proven very successful at 
the Maine Experiment Station and is described in Circular 352 
of that Station : 

"The routine method which the Station uses in handling its 
stock with reference to the lice problem is as follows : 

''All hatching and rearing of chickens is done in incubators 
and brooders. The growing chickens are never allowed to 
come into any contact whatever with old hens. Therefore, 
when the pullets are ready to go into the laying houses in the 
fall they are free from lice. Sometime in the later summer, 
usually in August or early in September, the laying houses are 
given a thorough cleaning. They are first scraped, scoured 
and washed out with water thrown on the walls and floor with 
as much pressure as possible from a hose. They are then given 
two thorough sprayings, with an interval of several days inter- 
vening, with a solution of cresol such as is described in Chap. 
II. Then the roosting boards, nests, floors and walls to a 
height of about 5 feet are thoroughly sprayed with the lice paint 
(kerosene oil and crude carbolic acid described on p. 135). 
Finally, any yearling, or older birds, whether male or female, 
which are to be kept over for the next year's work are given 
2 or 3 successive dustings, at intervals of several days to a 
week between each application, with the lice powder described 
on p. 130, before they are put into the cleaned houses. 

''As a result of these methods the Station's poultry plant is 
at all times of the year practically free of lice." 

This method keeps the flock free from lice and the mites 
which live upon the surface of the skin, but would not destroy 
those mites which penetrate the skin and cause scabies. These 
and other more rare parasites should be destroyed when present 
by special methods. The description of, and treatment for each 
class of external parasite is given below. 

A. LICE (mAEEOPHAGA). 

Lice are probably the most widely distributed parasite of 
poultry. They are so common that flocks of fowls that have 
not been treated to remove lice for a long time are almost sure 



126 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



to have one or more species present. At least 8 species of hen 
hce have been found and 5 of these are common. Bird Hce are 
quite different from those which aft'ect man and mammals. 

The popular notion that lice may be transmitted from poultry 
to other animals is quite erroneous. Theobald (Parasitic Dis- 
eases of Poultry) says : ''So particular are bird-lice that it is 
quite the exception to find one species upon two distinct kinds 
of birds. Fovvl-lice will not even attack the duck nor duck-lice 
the fowl. Nearly every bird has its own particular Mallopha- 
gan parasite or parasites. They may possibly pass to some 
strange host for a short time, but they will not live and breed. 

Moreover particular species attack restricted areas on 

the same host and are seldom found in other positions." Some 
of these lice are sluggish, nearly stationary, and confined to a 
restricted area of the body, while others are active and crawl 
over the entire body. The 8 known species are described in 
Theobald's "Parasitic Diseases of Poultry," pp. 23-29. 

The most common and widely dis- 
tributed hen louse found in this country 
is Mcnopon pallidum. This louse is 
shown in fig. 24. 

■Another species of this genus {Meno- 
(yon hiscriatum) , which closely resembles 
M. pallidum, is also sometimes found. 
These are active lice living on all parts 
of the body. They often crawl on to the 
hands when handling or plucking birds, 
and may sometimes be found in the nests. 
There are several other lice which 
sometimes infest poultry. Each of these 
species is confined to a special region of 
Fig. 24. The common the host. Although capable of crawling 
hen louse (Menobon 1 . ^1 i- r ^1 • r .1 

, „., . ^ , about, the lice of these species tor the 

pallidnm) Greatly en- . -^ , 

1 a r g e d. (From i^^ost part remain nearly stationary, often 

Banks). with their heads buried in the skin and 

their bodies erect. Two species, Lipeurus variabilis and Lipeu- 
rus lictcrograpliiis, live among the barbs of the wing and tail 
feathers. Gouiodcs dissimilis is found under the wings and on 
the rump. The appearance of two of the species mentioned, viz., 




POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



127 



Lipcnrus variahilis and Goniodcs dissimilis, is shown in figs. 25 
and 26 respectively. 





Fig. 25. Lipeurus ra- 
riahilis. A louse 
that infests poul- 
try. ]\Iuch enlarged. 
(From Banks after 
Denny). 



F i g. 26. Goniodcs 
dissiiiiilis. a louse 
that infests poul- 
try. Much enlarged. 
(From Banks after 
Denny). 



A short accoinit of the mode of life ; the conditions which 
favor their presence ; their effect upon the birds ; and the gen- 
eralized Hfe history of hen lice are given in Leaflet No. 57 of 
the English Board of Agriculture, pp. 3 and 4. From this 
source the following is quoted : 

''These Mallophaga have not a piercing mouth, their mouth is 
simply used for biting. They subsist upon the productions of 
the skin and fragments of feathers. They cause violent itching, 
and bite sharply, and must produce considerable pain when pres- 
ent in large numbers, as is too often the case. The feathers, 
especially the saddle hackle, generally show notched edges with 
lice infestation. Eight distinct species of lice attack fowls. The 
presence of these lice is generally ascribed to too uniform or 
insufficient nutrition, or else to damp, dark, and dirty runs, 
especially those badly ventilated. Food, either when uniform 
or insufficient, has no effect upon their presence. Dark, damp 
places, however, when dirty, are sure to harbor all these pests, 
especially when badly ventilated. It is also said that breed 
affects their presence, but observation tends to show that all 
breeds are more or less subjected to infestation. In every case 
they set up severe irritation and inflammation of the skin, which 
often leads to stunted growth, and even death. Lice and other 
parasites flourish on unhealthy birds." 



128 POULTRY DISKASKS AND THE:iR TREATMENT. 

"Life-history of Lice. — All the lice breed fairly rapidly. The 
eggs or nits are laid upon the down feathers, as a rule ; they are 
often beautifully sculptured objects, oval in form. In about 6 
to 10 days they hatch into small, pale, active lice, which at once 
commence to irritate the birds. The adults are occasionally 
found in the nests. Some species are found copulating in the 
nests, others always on the birds. They live a considerable 
time. Menopon pallidum (Fig. 24) has been kept alive for 
months upon fresh feathers, the quill epidermis being especially 
eaten. Before reaching the full-grown state as many as 10 or 
12 moults apparently take place, there being little difference in 
each stage, except the gradual darkening of the markings." 

The eggs or nits of hen lice are shown in fig. 27. 




Fig. 2-. Feathers showing eggs or "nits'" of the common hen louse. 
Enlarged (Original). 

Methods of Introduction and Infestation. — It is generally 
agreed that lice and other parasites flourish best in insanitary 
surroundings. There must, however, be a source of infesta- 
tion. Lice are brought to a new place by introducing infested 
birds. They spread from bird to bird (a) directly during copu- 
lation (an infested cock often infests the whole flock), or (b) 
when two hens occupy a nest together, or (c) from mother to 
chick. They also pass indirectly from bird to bird by crawling 
ofif one bird first on to the nesting material and later on to an- 
other bird which uses the same nest. Doctor Sharp has also 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT, I29 

observed several lice clinging to the body of a fly parasitic upon 
chickens. Lice are so much more common than the parasitic 
fly that it is probable that this insect is of little real importance 
in the distribution of the lice. 

All the lice breed very rapidly. In 8 weeks the third genera- 
tion is mature and in this generation the estimated number of 
the offspring of a single pair is 125,000 individuals. It seems 
important to eradicate an infestation if possible as soon as dis- 
covered. However, if kept under sanitary conditions and fur- 
nished with plenty of attractive dust, vigorous birds will hold 
external parasites in check. With some attention to sick birds, 
setting hens and young chicks, the parasites will give little 
trouble on a plant conducted with due regard to the principles 
of hygiene and sanitation (cf. Chap. II). 

Diagnosis. — "It should be remembered at all times that the 
external animal parasites are the most common and frequent 
cause of trouble in the poultry-yard and pigeon-cote. If the 
birds are not thriving and conducting themselves satisfactorily, 
look for these pests, take measures to repress them, and in most 
cases the results will be surprising and gratifying. When any- 
thing is the matter with a horse the maxim is examine his feet, 
and when anything is found wrong with poultry or other domes- 
ticated birds, the maxim should be look for licef' (Salmon.) 

Adult hens may harbor quite a number of these parasites with- 
out showing any symptoms which indicate their presence. If 
they are unthrifty and broody hens leave their nests they should 
be examined for lice. The biting and digging of the claws of 
the lice may cause sores and the nervous irritation and loss of 
sleep may cause general debility and bowel trouble. Little chick- 
ens are 'very susceptible and often die. Lice are frequently 
found in large numbers on birds suffering from roup, gapes, etc. 
In some cases their presence has rendered the birds more sus- 
ceptible to other disease, while in others it is probable that the 
birds lack suflicient energy to dust themselves. 

The sure test for the presence of lice is, of course, finding the 
lice. Part the fathers under the wing, on the back and around 
the vent and examine the exposed skin. Examine the head and 
neck feathers and look between the large feathers of the wing. 
When present the parasites are easily found by anyone who is 
familiar with them. It seems incredible that serious infesta- 
tions can escape the eye of any poultryman. 



130 POULTRY DISKASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

Treatment. — Sanitary surroundings and liberal range help the 
birds in their attempts to keep themselves free from lice. The 
dust bath is very efficient in holding the pests in check. It is 
doubtful, however, whether the dust boxes which used to be 
almost universally kept in the poultry house are of any real 
value. It is a noticeable fact that dust boxes are much less used 
now than formerly. This Station has not made use of them for 
a number of years. As commonly made these boxes are too 
small, and too shallow, and are not filled with the proper kind 
of material. Hens will use them, in most cases, only as a last 
resort if at all. 

When possible, birds should be given access to dry, sandy 
ground, and they will provide their own dust bath. Some au- 
thors advise adding insect powder to the earth in dust boxes for 
bad infestations. It is doubtful whether under the best of cir- 
cumstances this does anything but waste the insect powder. It 
is better to apply the powder directly to the bird and furnish 
clean earth for the dust bath. 

When hens are used for incubating and brooding it is neces- 
sary to give some individual treatment to brooding hens and 
young chicks. It is also necessary to treat sick hens which are 
not able to use the dust bath. While it is theoretically possible 
to exterminate the pests and keep the flock free from them by 
avoiding the introduction of infected birds, this ideal condition 
prevails in very few poultry plants. In almost all flocks there 
are enough lice present to cause trouble if conditions favor their 
development. Robinson gives a very good method for prevent- 
ing troublesome outbreaks in the following words : 

''Treat with insect powder every sick fowl, every fowl that 
has been cooped for some days where it could not dust itself, 
every sitting hen when set, and at least twice again during the 
period of incubation, the last time just before the eggs are due 
to pip; treat the young chicks and hen when a brood is taken 
from the nest, and at intervals of a week until 3 weeks old." 

Hozv to Make an Effective and Very Cheap Lice Powder. 

When the treatment of individual birds for lice becomes neces- 
sary some kind of powder dusted into the feathers thoroughly, 
seems to be, on the whole, the most effective and advisable 
remedy. The powder used must be of such nature, however, 
that it will be effective. There are so-called ''lice powders" on 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 131 

the market which are no more effective than an equal quantity 
of any inert powdered substance would be. It is not only a 
waste of money but of time as well to use such powders. At the 
Maine Station no lice powder has been found that is so satis- 
factory as that originally invented by I\Ir. R. C. Lawry, for- 
merly of the poultry department of Cornell University. The 
following matter regarding this powder (which can be made at 
a cost of 5 cents per pound) is quoted from a circular issued 
by the Maine Station : 

''In using any kind of lice powder on poultry, whether the 
one described in this circular or some other, it should always be 
remembered that a single application of powder is not sufficient. 
When there are lice present on a bird there are always unhatched 
eggs of lice ('nits') present too. The proper procedure is to 
follow up a first application of powder with a second at an inter- 
val of 4 days to a week. If the birds are badly infested at the 
beginning it may be necessary to make still a third application. 

"The lice powder which the Station uses is made at a cost of 
only a few cents a pound in the following way : 

''Take J parts of gasoline, 

^'i part of crude carbolic acid; 

''To get the proper results only the po-p^ per cent, carbolic 
acid should be used for making lice powder. Weaker acids are 
ineffective." 

"Owing to the difficulty in getting the strong crude carbolic 
acid locally in this State at reasonable prices, the Station has 
experimented to see whether some other more readily obtain- 
able substance could not be substituted for it. It has been 
found that cresol gives as good results as the highest grade 
crude carbolic." 

"The directions for making the powder are now, therefore, 
modified as follows : 

"Take j parts of gasoline, and 

I part of crude carbolic acid, po-p^ per cent, strength, 
or, if the po'p^ per cent, strength crude carbolic acid cannot be 
obtained take 

3 parts of gasoline and 
I part of cresol.'' 
"Mix these together and add gradually with stirring, enough 
plaster of paris to take up all the moisture. As a general rule 
if will take about 4 quarts of plaster of paris to i quart of 



132 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

the liquid. The exact amount, however, must be determined 
by the condition of the powder in each case. The Hquid and 
dry plaster should be thoroughly mixed and stirred so that the 
liquid will be uniformly distributed through the mass of plas- 
ter. When enough plaster has been added the resulting mix- 
ture should be a dry, pinkish brown powder having a fairly 
strong carbolic odor and a rather less pronounced gasoHne 
odor." 

"Do not use more plaster in mixing than is necessary to blot 
up the liquid. This powder is to be worked into the feathers 
of the birds affected with vermin. The bulk of the application 
should be in the fluff around the vent and on the ventral side of 
the body and in the fluff under the wings. Its efficiency, which 
is greater than that of any other lice powder known to the 
writer, can be very easily demonstrated by anyone to his own 
satisfaction. Take a bird that is covered with lice and apply 
the powder in the manner just described. After a lapse of 
about a minute, shake the bird, loosening its feathers with the 
fingers at the same time, over a clean piece of paper. Dead 
and dying lice will drop on the paper in great numbers. Any- 
one who will try this experiment will have no further doubt of 
the wonderful efficiency and value of this powder." 

Next to the Lawry powder probably pure pyrethrum or Per- 
sian insect powder is as cheap and effective as anything to be 
had. 

A time-honored and effective treatment for lice, especially for 
young chicks, is greasing. The grease most often used is lard 
or sometimes lard and sulphur. The latter should not be used 
for young chicks. The lard is applied with the finger to the 
head, neck, under the wings and around the vent. Greasing is 
a somewhat tedious but very effective treatment for lice, espe- 
cially on young chicks, since lice usually attack them on the head 
and neck. 

Prof. W. R. Graham, in conversation with one of the writers, 
has strongly recommended the use of blue ointment (Unguen- 
tiim hydrargyria U. S. P.) to rid birds of lice in cases where 
individual treatment was demanded. 

B. MITES ACARINA. 

Eighteen species of mites are parasitic upon fowls. Only 4 
of these are sufficiently injurious and widely distributed to be 



POULTRY DISLASE:S AND TH^IR TRE:ATMENT. 



133 



of great economic importance. Occasionally one or another of 
the other species becomes sufficiently abundant to be of local 
importance. The mites are small 8-legged animals related to 
the spiders. Some of the mites parasitic on the fowl visit their 
host only to feed, as the common red mite ; others remain on the 
surface of the skin or on the feathers, as in the case of deplum- 
ing scabies. Others live under the skin, causing deep-seated 
skin diseases like scaly leg; still others find their way into the 
internal regions of the body, living either on mucous membranes 
like the air sac mite (p. no) or upon the connective tissue like 
the connective tissue mite. 




Fig. 28. The common "red mite" of poultry, Dermany- 
ssus gallinae, a, adult, d and e, young. (After 
Osborn). 

The most common and most injurious mite parasitic on fowls 
is the common fowl mite or red mite, Dermanyssus gallincB. 
These mites are present in almost every poultry house that is not 
kept very clean. When they are present in large numbers they 
are a serious pest. This mite is a little more than ^ millimeter 
long. The female is a little larger than the male. When empty 
Ihey are gray with dark spots, but usually they appear some 
shade from yellow to dark red according to the amount of fowl's 
blood they contain. They visit the fowls only to feed and spend 
the rest of the time on the under sides of the roosts, in cracks 
and crevices, under collections of droppings or other filth and 
in the nesting material, especially if such material is dirty straw. 
The mites breed in these places. They reproduce very rapidly, 
especially in spring and summer. The eggs are laid in con- 



134 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

cealed places, usually in cracks containing filth or in dirty nest- 
ing material. The young mites are white and have only 6 legs. 
Their first food is probably filth or decayed wood. They moult 
several times and their cast skins are often seen as a white 
powder on the perches. After the first moult the larvae have 
8 legs. The mites are able to live and reproduce for months at 
least without animal food, but when they are associated with 
fowls the older larvae and adults depend upon the blood of the 
fowls for food. They usually attack the birds at night but 
sometimes are found feeding on laying or brooding hens during 
the day. They pierce the skin with their needle-like jaws and 
suck the blood. The irritation due to the biting of a number 
of these creatures disturbs the rest of the bird and the loss of 
blood may be considerable. The mites thrive best in dark, 
damp, dirty houses and may be found in such houses for months 
after all fowls have been removed. They will bite man or other 
mammals, causing severe irritation, but do not remain on strange 
hosts for any length of time. Fowls should not be allowed to 
roost in sheds with other animals, as the sheds may become 
infested with the mites which will disturb the other animals as 
well as the fowls. 

Diagnosis.- — If the birds are not doing well, especially if they 
appear emaciated and dejected, they should be examined at 
night for mites. In the day time the ends and under sides of 
the roosts and the cracks in them should be examined. Num- 
bers of the mites are often found by prying up a loose cleat or 
splitting off a wide loose sliver. They may often be found in 
old straw nests. 

Treatment. — Clean, dry, well ventilated houses which get 
plenty of sunlight are seldom badly infested. The first step in 
eradicating or controlling the pest is thoroughly to clean the 
houses. Remove the droppings and all the old nesting material. 
Clean and when possible scrub or wash with a stream from the 
hose all the perches, nests, floors and walls. Spray or paint the 
perches, nests, walls and floors with a 5 per cent solution of 
cresol (see Chap. II for directions for making this). Prof. H. 
C. Pierce has tested various remedies for mites and finds none 
so effective as this- Use plenty of solution and make the spray- 
mg thorough. Every crack and crevice should be flooded. 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 1 35 

Another spray successfully used is : 3 parts kerosene and i 
part crude carbolic acid. Still a third, kerosene emulsion is 
recommended by the United States Department of Agriculture. 
Their method of making this spray as given in Circular No. 92 is 
as follows : "To make this, shave ^ pound of hard soap into i 
gallon of soft water and boil the mixture until the soap is dis- 
solved. Then remove it to a safe distance from the fire and 
stir into it at once, while still hot, 2 gallons of kerosene or coal 
oil. The result is a thick, creamy emulsion. Dilute this stock 
mixture with 10 parts of soft water, and apply as a spray or 
with a brush, being careful to work it into all cracks, crevices, 
and joints of the building." 

With any of these sprays it is necessary to make two or more 
applications at intervals of a few days to destroy the mites 
which hatch after the first application. The liquid may be put 
on with a hand spray pump or with a brush. Cleanliness, fresh 
air and sunlight are cheap and effective preventatives. 

Scaly Leg. 

A minute mite, Kncmidocoptes (Dermatoryctes) (Sarcoptes) 
mittaus, is the cause of a contagious disease affecting the legs 
of fowls, turkeys, pheasants, partridges and cage birds. Ac- 
cording to some authorities it sometimes afifects the comb and 
beak also. The mites excavate places under the skin where they 
live and breed. The most thorough study yet made of this para- 
site and its effect on birds is that of Haiduk.* 

Diagnosis. — This very common disease is easily recognized by 
the enlarged roughened appearance it gives the foot and shank. 
This appearance is shown in fig. 29, with a normal leg for com- 
parison. 

The disease is present in most flocks unless especial care has 
been taken to exclude it. It is slightly contagious, but usually 
only a few birds in a flock appear to be infected. The scales 
on the foot and leg of an aifected bird are raised by a crusty 
substance .icposited beneath them. The lesions usually appear 
first neai the joints between the toes and foot. The parts affect- 
ed first appear to be enlarged and then the scales are raised, 
giving the roughened appearance shown in B fig. 29. In early 



*Haiduk, T. Die Fiissrauder des Gefliigels. Inaug. Diss. Giessen, 
1909, pp. 1-58, Taf. I-VI. 



136 POULTRY DISKASKS AND THEIR TREATMENT 











Fig. 29. A. Normal leg of hen. B. Leg of hen affected with 
scaly leg. (After Megnin). 



POULTRY DISEASKS AND 'J'lIEiR TREATMENT, 



137 




Fig. 30. Photograph of the leg of a hen affected with scaly leg. 
(After Haiduk). 



138 



POUI^TRY DISKASKS AND THE:iR TREATME^NT. 



Stages the disease does not appear to disturb the general health 
of the fowl. As it progresses the birds become lame and some- 
times the foot becomes so badly diseased that joints or even 
whole toes drop off. The photograph of a badly affected leg 
is shown in fig. 30. The two legs are usually affected equally. 



)?/% 





Fig. 31. Photograph of the adult female of the mite Knemidocoptes 
(Dcrmatoryctes) imitans. (After Haiduk). 



^ Bhology. — The disease is caused by the minute parasitic mite 
Knemidocoptes mutans (figs. 31 and 32). 



POULTRY DISI^ASKS AND" THI^IR TRi:ATME:NT. I 



39 







^N^; 



S^ / 



:5^^' 




Fig. 32. Photograph of the six-legged larva of Kncmidocoptes 
(Dcnnatoryctcs) iiiutans. (After Haiduk). 

The mites bore under the scales of the foot and leg and bur- 
row deeper and deeper into the tissue. They set up an irritation 
which leads to multiplication of cells and the exudation of serum. 
This accumulation forms crusty deposits beneath the scales. 
These crusts contain many depressions in which are imbedded 
female mites containing eggs. The larvae and the males are 
usually found beneath the crusts. The relations just described 
are shown in fig. 33, which is a picture of a section of the skin 
of a "scaly" leg. 



I40 



POULTRY DISE:aSE:S AND THI^IR TRKATMKNT. 



/ 







,-- 'V> 



,^<:^C^.^. 



Fig- Zl- Section of the skin of the leg of a fowl affected with 
scaly leg. 

a. Papilla with pigment cells. 

b. Lymphatic tissue in the papilla. 

c. Epidermis : stratum profundum. 

d. Epidermis : stratum corneum. 

e. Section through a mite. 

e. Section through a mite showing head and 2 pairs of legs. 

f. Young mite. 

g. Cavity excavated by mites. 
h. Excrement of mite. 

i. Horny layer between the mite excavations. 
(From Haiduk, after Olt). 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. I4I 

As the disease progresses the mites which are becoming con- 
stantly more numerous penetrate very deep into the tissues, 
causing lameness and sometimes the loss of some of the toes. 

The infection from bird to bird probably takes place on the 
roosts or from mother to chick. Robinson believes that the 
birds most likely to be infected are those with a deficient supply 
of oil in the skin. The conditions which favor its spread in a 
flock are dry, barren runs, especially on alkaline soils or in yards 
filled with ashes or cinders. Foul roosting places also favor the 
spread of the disease. The disease is easily cured and it is 
worth the trouble of any poultryman to cure all the affected 
birds and to examine any birds purchased that infected ones 
may be treated before they are introduced into the flock. 

Treatment. — Individual treatment is necessary to cure the dis- 
ease. This treatment consists in the application of some pene- 
trating oil to the diseased parts. A large number of oils and 
ointments have been used successfully. If the case is not far ad- 
vanced and if there is no especial hurry about bringing about the 
cure the application of the oils or ointments at intervals of 2 or 
3 days will soon do the work. If the birds must be cured quickly 
for show or sale purposes the cure is hastened by removing the 
scales and crusts before applying the medicine. This may be 
done by brushing with a stiff toothbrush before each treatment. 
Or the feet may be soaked for a few moments in warm soapy 
water and then brushed. When the disease is far advanced it 
is best to begin the treatment by the removal of the scales. 

Haiduk's experiments show that one of the very best cures 
for scaly leg is oil of carazvay. This is best applied in an oint- 
ment made of i part of oil of caraway to 5 parts of zvhite vase- 
line. Oil of caraway is very penetrating and is not nearly as 
irritating as some of the treatments more usually advised. This 
ointment should be rubbed into the leg and foot every few days 
until signs of the disease disappear. 

Hill recommends daily application of an ointment made of 
equal parts of vaseline and zinc ointment, or in severe cases of 
one made of i ounce of sulphur, ^ ounce of oxide of zinc, i 
dram of oil of tar and 2 ounces of whale oil mixed together. 

There are two common remedies used successfully by poultry- 
men. These are irritating and should be used with some cau- 
tion. They have the advantage of being quickly applied. The 
best of these is probably a mixture of i part of coal oil or kero- 



142 



POULTRY DISe:aSE:S AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



sene and 2 parts of raw linseed oil. If a quick cure is impera- 
tive a half-and-half mixture may be used. Robinson in Farm 
Poultry, May, 1907, recommends a quick and easy method of 
applying this. It is to take a tall quart measure of the liquid to 
the hen house at night and dip both legs of each infected bird 
into the measure of oil, holding them there for a moment and 
then allowing them to drip for a moment more and then re- 
placing the hen on the roost. With any treatment which in- 
volves the use of kerosene care must be taken not to wet the 
feathers of the leg, as this causes irritation and sometimes burns 
the skin much as the human skin is burned when it is rubbed 
with kerosene and covered with flannel. 

A second method of applying kerosene is to put a teaspoonful 
of the oil in a quart measure of water and treat the birds by 
the method given above The same care should be taken not to 
wet the feathers. 

The advantage of these treatments is their easy and rapid 
application to a number of birds. 

Depluming Scabies. 
The mite Sar copies Iccvis var. gallince (fig. 34) is the cause 





E 



Fig. 34. Egg" containing female Sar copies 
Jacvis var. gallinac. (After Theobald). 

of a kind of scabies in fowls which causes the feathers to break 
off at the surface of the skin. 

Symptoms. — This disease usually appears in spring and sum- 
mer and is characterized by the dropping off of patches of 



POUU'RY DISEASES AND TH^IR TR^ATMKNT. I43 

feathers on different parts of the body. It usually begins at the 
rump and spreads to the head and neck, back, thighs and breast. 
The large wing and tail feathers are not usually lost. The ex- 
posed skin is normal in appearance. Around the stumps of the 
lost feathers and at the end of the quills of feathers near the 
bare spots are masses of epidermal scales. On microscopic 
examination these scales are found to be composed of numerous 
mites and their debris. The irritation of the mites often causes 
the birds to pull their own feathers. Birds aft"ected often pull 
each others' feathers. Some of the so-called feather eating is 
due to the presence of this parasite, but fowls sometimes pull 
each others' feathers when the parasite is not present. Salmon 
says this disease does not affect the general health of the bird 
and does not appear to disturb gain in flesh or egg production, 
but Theobald says that the disease checks egg laying in hens 
and affected cocks become emaciated and sometimes die. 

Etiology. — The mite Sarcoptes Iccvis which causes this disease 
is smaller than the one which causes scaly leg. They live at the 
base of the feathers in the epidermal debris referred to above. 
A flock becomes infected by the introduction of one or more 
birds carrying the mites. The mites are spread from bird to 
bird by the male in copulation. The distribution is often very 
rapid so that the whole flock is soon affected. 

Treatment. — The disease should be prevented by taking care 
not to introduce infested birds. If it appears all affected birds 
should at once be isolated. The mites yield easily to treatment. 
The infested areas may be rubbed with some of the less irri- 
tating ointments recommended for scaly legs (see p. 141). 

The following list gives some ointments in the order of their 
desirability for use on the body. 

Oil of caraway ointment (i to 5). 

Balsam of Peru. 

Creolin treatment (i to 10). 

Helme rich's ointment. 
Salmon gives a modification of the latter ointment which he 
considers an improvement for use in depluming scabies. 

Flowers of sulphur, i dram. 

Carbonate of potash, 20 grains, 

Lard of vaseline, 5^ ounce. 
Scabies may also be cured by liquid applications. The two 
following preparations are recommended by Salmon: A solu- 



144 POUI.TRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

tion of balsam of Peru in alcohol (i part of balsam to 3 of alco- 
hol) or I dram of creolin, 2 ounces of glycerine, ^ ounce of 
alcohol and >^ ounce of water. Either of these liquids are 
applied by rubbing into the skin. The application should be 
repeated every 4 or 5 days until the disease is cured. 

Other Mites Affecting Poultry. 

Another form of Body Mange or scabies is found associated 
with the mites Bpidermoptes bilobatus and Bpidermoptes bifur- 
catus, but it has not been certainly demonstrated that they are 
the cause of the disease. Present evidence indicates that they 
are. 

The disease closely resembles favus (p. 147) but usually does 
not affect the head. The regions commonly attacked are the 
neck, breast, the wings and the body under the wings. It some- 
times affects the entire body, including the head. The skin be- 
comes irritated and shows an accumulation of 
scales or crusts especially at the base of the 
feathers. 

The mites live on the skin at the base of the 
feathers. Since the mites are sometimes found 
on birds which show no signs of scabies and since 
the disease so closely resembles favus, which is 
known to be caused by a fungus, it is sometimes 
supposed that this mange is also due to a fungus 
and that the mites are inoffensive. 

Five species of mites have been recorded 
which live upon the feathers of fowls. These 
are fairly abundant but do no harm. 

Two mites live within the body of fowls. One 

T^. c i. of these, the air sac mite, is described elsewhere 

Fig. 35. Symp- ' 

tectoptes cys-iV- no)- The other the connective tissue mite, 
I i CO I a. Con- S'ymplectoptes cysticola, is found in the con- 
nective tissue nective tissue of the fowls. They produce local 
mite. (After •j.j--|.^^-j^j^g giving rise to tubercles but apparently 

do not affect the health of the bird. 
The larvae of the so-called "harvest-bug" (which is not a hug 
at all) Tetranychus (Thrombidium) (Leptus) autiimnalis some- 
times attacks poultry. The appearance of this mite is shown in 
fig- 36. 





POULTRY DISEASES AND TIIKIK TREATMENT. !45 

This small brick red mite, rarely visible 
to the naked eye, is bred upon berry and 
currant bushes, vegetables and grain, but 
when opportunity offers it bites almost 
any animal, often attacking man. It some- 
times causes considerable mortality among 
late hatched chickens which frequent its 
breeding places. The parasites fasten 

?■ ^m' ^ / ^ ^ ^/ themselves so firmly bv their claws and 
bug, Tetranychus i , , i i i 

{Leptus) autumn- Palpi that they can only be detached by 
alis, larval form, force. They produce intense UTitation 
(After Murray), which often leads to epileptiform syii.p- 

toms and death follows in a few days. 
Theobald suggests dusting flowers of sulphur among the feath- 
ers when the parasites are present. Probably the Lawry lice 
powder (p. 130) would be more effective. When these par- 
asites are abundant chickens should be kept away from the 
places where the mites breed. 

Other B.ytcrnal Parasites. 

The dove cot hug or "bed-bug" of poultrymen, found in pig- 
eon lofts, sometimes invades neighboring hen roosts. It prob- 
ably sometimes attacks fowls. It resembles closely the bed bug 
found in dwelling houses and like this pest is hard to extermi- 
nate as it can live almost indefinitely on dead organic matter. 
This tick hides in cracks during the day and attacks its host 
only at night. Persistent repetition of the sprays recommended 
for hen roosts infected with red mites (p. 134) will destroy 
these parasites. 

Leaflet No. 57 of the English Board of Agriculture gives the 
following brief account of the hen flea, Pulex gallinae (or 
a-L'ium) : 

"The fleas, which are true insects, belong to the order of 
flies (Diptcra). They feed upon the blood. One species only 
lives upon the fowl, namely the bird flea (Pulex gallinae or 
avium) which attacks also most other birds. The hen flea, as 
it is generally called, is abundant in dirty fowl runs, and espe- 
cially in the nests where straw is used. The adult flea is dark 
in colour, and, as in all fleas, is devoid of wings. The fleas 
are provided with very sharp piercing mouths. They are what 



10 



146 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

are termed 'partial parasites' — parasites that only go to their 
hosts to feed. The fleas are not noticed on the birds because 
they generally attack them at night; then, however, they do 
much harm, causing constant irritation and loss of blood, and 
depriving them of rest." 

'%ife-history of Hen Flea. — The female flea lays her eggs 
(nits) chiefly in the nests amongst dust and dirt and in the 
crevices of the walls and floor. These nits give rise to pearly 
white maggots, with brown horny heads, which can often be 
found in the bottom of the nests amongst the dust. These larvae 
are mature in 2 or 3 weeks, then they reach about 1-6 of an 
inch in lenf.;th. In warm weather they may be full fed in 
even 10 days. They then spin a pale cocoon amongst the dirt, 
in which they pupate. The pupa is at first pale brown, then 
dark chestnut brown. In this condition the flea remains 10 to 
21 days, when the pupa hatches into the adult. They breed 
all the year round, but chiefly in warm weather. It is well to 
remember that, whenever there are dark and dirty hen roosts, 
there are sure to be a number of Piilex gallinac." 

Treatment. These parasites do not usually occur under sani- 
tary housing conditions. When they occur the houses should 
be cleaned and sprayed as for red mites (p. 134). Theobald 
recommends the use of excelsior or shavings instead of straw 
for nesting material as the fleas do not breed as readily in this 
material. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



DisKASKs OF THE Skin. 
Paviis {Baldness or White Comb). 

This disease of the skin attacks poultry as well as man and 
the domestic mammalia. In mammals it is called tinea favosa or 
faviis. 

Diagnosis. The disease usually appears first as small gray 
white spots on the comb, wattles, eye lids and around the ears, 
that is, on the unfeathered parts of the head. The spots enlarge 
and run together forming a scaly crust which becomes thicker 
until in 3 or 4 weeks it may be as much as 8 millimeters (1-3 
inch) thick. The scales which make up the crust are often 
formed in concentric rings, the margins raised and the centers 
depressed, so that the scale is somewhat cup shaped. When the 
crust is removed the skin appears irritated and in places the sur- 
face is somewhat raw. The disease spreads to the feathered 
parts of the head, the neck, and the region around the vent. 
The base of the feathers becomes 
surrounded by concentric rings of 
the scaly material. The feathers 
become dry, erect, and brittle and 
finally break ofif or fall out leaving 
a disc-shaped scale with a depres- 
sion at the bottom where the base 
of the feather was located. The 
bird's head and neck and patches 
around the vent become bare of 
feathers. The exposed skin is cov- 
ered with the cup-shaped scales. 
Sometimes the disease spreads over 
the whole body until the bird be- 
comes nearly naked. The diseased 

bird has a peculiar disagreeable ^'^- f " , ^^f ^f "".''^ °^ 

1 ^- 1-1 , , , a fowl affected with gen- 

odor, sometimes likened to the odor ^^^^^^j favus. (After 

of a musty grain or to mouldy Pearson). 




148 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THKIR TREATMENT. 



cheese and sometimes to cat's urine or to macerating animal ma- 
terial. In early stages the general health does not appear to be 
affected but as the disease advances the bird loses its appetite, 
becomes poor and exhausted, and finally dies. 

Etiology. The disease is caused by the fungus Achorion 
sell Old ciiin 




Fig. 38. The fungus Achorion schon- 
Jcinii which causes favus in poultry, 
tv. — Empty tubes of mycelium, 
tp. — Tubes of the mycelium con- 
taining protoplasm and spores. 

This fungus is found in the cup like scales on the skin and in 
the quills of the feathers of the diseased parts. If the favic cups 
or scales arc moistened with weak acetic acid and examined un- 
der the microscope it will be seen that they are formed of 
branching, thread-like mycelial tubes of the fungus closely 
interwoven with one another, spores of the fungus, and epithelial 
scales from the skin of the host imbedded in a viscid substance 
secreted by the fungus. Some of the tubes of the mycelium 
contain spores. INIany of the spores are found free among the 
filaments. They are usually found in groups of 3, 4 or 8. 

Both the mycelium and spores of the fungus are found in the 
quills of the feathers of the diseased parts. The fungus some- 
times penetrates even the barbs of the feathers. 

Favus is a contagious disease and gets into a flock by the in- 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. I49 

trocliiction of an affected bird. It is less likely to attack strong, 
vigorous birds than those in poor condition. It usually starts 
at a point where the skin is broken. Young birds are more sus- 
ceptible than old ones. The large Asiatic breeds are specially 
liable to take the disease. No breed is entirely immune. 

Megnin and some other authors consider this disease distinct 
from the favus of man and other animals, but numerous record- 
ed observations indicate that it is the same disease and may be 
communicated to man. In handling affected birds, therefore, 
care should be exercised to prevent infection of cuts or scratches. 
Treatment. Diseased birds should not be introduced into a 
flock. If the disease has been accidentally introduced the affect- 
ed birds should be isolated as soon as possible. The flocks 
should be watched in order to discover and isolate any new cases 
that appear. 

In early stages the disease yields readily to treatment. Ziirn 
considers treatment economically advisable only before the feath- 
ered parts of the body are attacked. The disease may sometimes 
be cured at a later stage. The value of the aft'ectecl bird must 
determine whether or not it is worth treating. 

As much of the crust as possible should be removed. This 
is best done by first softening the scabs with warm water or 
with oil or glycerine. Robinson recommends scraping with 
the back of a knife or a spoon handle. The parts should then 
be painted with tincture of iodine or should be bathed with 
corrosive sublimate solution, i part of the sublimate to looo 
parts of water, and then rubbing with the ointment described 
on p. 30. In using the corrosive sublimate solution It 
should be borne in mind that this solution which unless colored 
with some dye looks exactly like water is extremely poisonous 
to men and animals when taken internally. Dishes or bottles 
of corrosive sublimate should never be left where they can be 
accidentally mistaken for water. 

Lard and sulphur are often used successfully in the treatment 
of favus. Use nearly as much sulphur as lard and work them 
into a smooth salve. In early stages the disease usually yields 
to application of lard or oil alone. 

Prognosis. In early stages the favus may be cured at the 
expense of a small amount of attention. After the feathered 
parts become affected a cure requires considerable labor as the 
fungus is better protected from the applications. 



150 POUIvTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

White Comb. 

This name is often used for favus, but some authorities (e. g., 
Vale) use it to designate a condition of the comb character- 
ized by a white powdery scurf of the surface. The comb is 
Hght colored and the white scales or flakes are particles detached 
from the epidermis. This condition is thought to be due to 
anemia. Wright says that it "appears generally due to dirt, or 
overcrowding in small space, or want of green food." The 
only treatment advised is to place the birds under sanitary con- 
ditions and give them a good balanced ration. 

Chicken Pox (Sore Head or Epithelioma Contagiosum). 

This contagious disease of poultry, although widely distrib- 
uted in the northern states, is less common and serious here 
than in the Gulf States and Hawaiian Islands. It is impossible 
at present to decide whether this is a distinct disease or a form 
of roup which affects the skin of the head. This can only be 
determined when further investigations have revealed the real 
cause of these diseases. 

Diagnosis. The disease usually appears as warty nodules on 
the unfeathered parts of the head. They look like the tumors 
in the nasal passages and eye sockets of birds affected with 
roup. 

Freidberger and Frohner* give a good description of these 
nodules on the skin of the head, as follows : 

"Their favorite seats are those parts of the head that are not 
covered with feathers ; root of the beak, neighborhood of the 
nostrils, angles of the mouth, lobes of the ear, parts adjacent to 
the auditory meatus, wattles, surface of the face, edges of the 
eye-lids, intermaxillary space, and especially the comb. They 
sometimes spread over the feathered parts of the head, throat 
and neck, and may occur on the outer surface of the thighs, 
abdomen, under the wings and in the vicinity of the cloaca. 
At first these epitheliomata appear in the skin, as flat nodules, 
which soon become prominent, and which vary in size from a 
poppy seed to a millet seed. Later on, they usually attain the 
size of a hemp seed. They are of a reddish-gray or yellowish- 
gray color, often show distinctly in their earlier stages of devel- 
opment a peculiar greasy, nacreous lustre; and are rather firm 



*Preidberger and Frohner. Veterinary Pathology (Vol. I. Hayes 
transl). Quoted from Gary. 



POUI.TRY DISE:ASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



151 



to the touch. Their surface soon becomes covered with a dirty- 
gray, yellowish-brown or red-brown crust. They are discrete 
and disseminated in considerable numbers on the erectile tis- 




Fig. 39. Sore-head crusts on comb, eye-lids and skia 
(After Gary). 

sues, etc. They vary in size according to their age ; and fre- 
quently lie rather close to one another, so that the affected parts 
look as if coarsely granulated; or they are crowded together 
in such a manner as to give the appearance of large warts with 
divisions through them, or mulberry-like hypertrophies. Even 
single nodules, to say nothing of the groups, may attain the size 
of a lentil, pea, cherry-stone, broad bean or larger object. The 
older they become the rougher, and more covered with knobs 
will be their incrusted surface." 

"If the edges of the eye-lids be affected by these tumors, the 
lids will become nodular, swollen and closed. The conjunctiva 
in this case also suffers; it projects outwards because catarrhally 
inflamed ; assumes a yellowish color at the seat of eruption ; and 
its surface becomes covered with crusts. Purulent conjuncti- 
vitis may appear and the inflammation may spread to the sclero- 
tic and cornea, with keratitis and panophthalmia as the result. 
If, as sometimes happens with pigeons, the eruption of nodules 
extends over the whole of the skin of the eye-lids and its neigh- 
borhood, the entire eye will become covered with mulberry-like 
proliferations of various sizes." 



152 rOUI,TRY DISEASES AND THEiR TP.EATMENT. 

The presence of these nodules on the epitheHum of the head 
is often (but apparently not always ) accompanied with char- 
acteristic roup lesions of the nasal cavities, mouth and- throat. 
As long as the disease is confined to the skin of the head the 
general health of the bird does not seem to be afifected. Recov- 
ery may take place without treatment in from 10 to 20 days. 
The nodules in such cases dry up and fall off. Usually, how- 
ever, the disease is not self-limited, but advances. The eyes 
may become closed so that the birds cannot see to eat. They get 
poor and die from exhaustion. When the mucous membrane 
of the mouth developes diphtheritic membranes death occurs 
earlier than in other forms. 

Etiology. The lesions of this disease resemble the lesions of 
roup and many of the same micro-organisms are found in the 
two cases. The organisms isolated from the lesions of sore- 
head include several bacteria, a coccidium, a yeast and several 
moulds. The coccidium, one of the moulds, and one of the 
bacteria have each been considered the cause of the disease by 
different workers. The real cause of the disease and its rela- 
tion to roup must be determined by further investigations. The 
following discussion of the etiology of sore-head is given by 
Gary (Chicken-Pox or Sore Head in Poultry. Alabama Agric. 
Expt. Stat. Bulletin 136) : 

"Transmission and Dissemination. It is evidently infec- 
tious ; because the disease in all its forms, spreads rather rapidly 
from one chicken or pigeon to another. Ward, Harrison and 
others have transmitted, in some cases quite readily by carrying 
small amount of diseased material (exudate and blood), from a 
sore-head chicken to healthy chickens. It is also quite certain 
that chicken pox and pigeon pox are identical or one and the 
same disease." 

''Mosquitoes, gnat flies, chicken mites (ticks), chicken lice, 
chicken foot mites (Sar copies miitans) and possibly cock-roaches 
may sometimes be carriers of the real virus. It seems quite cer- 
tain that mosquitoes can transmit the virus from water or some 
other source, under certain conditions. Warm and wet weather 
seem to increase the virulency of the virus and favor the rapid 
transmission of the disease. It is not impossible that ants may 
have a role to play in the transmission or cause of sore-head." 

''Pathological Anatomy. On the skin the small, greasy-like 
nodules, or hypertrophied nodules of the skin, contain epithelial 



POUL'IKV DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 1 53 

cells that have in them greasy' refractive bo;lies that stain yel- 
low with picro-carmine and the nuclei of the epithelial cells be- 
come 'reddish brown' in color. Nearly all the epithelial cells in 
the nodule appear larger than normal and contain the refractive 
bodies. In the younger epithelial cells these bodies (young coc- 
cidia ) are relatively small and occupy ^4 to 1-3 of the epithelial 
cavity. In the older or outer or cast-off epithelial cells these 
refractive bodies are said by Freidberger and Frohner to occupy 
the entire cavities of the epithelial cells. The invaded or in- 
fested epithelial cells are unusually larger, than the epidermal 
cells of the healthy neighboring skin. Among the cast-ofif mass 
of epithelial cells are found round refractive bodies and numer- 
ous nuclei of leucocytes or pus cells. The subcutaneous con- 
nective tissue is hyperaemic (congested) and is infiltrated with 
cells (leucocytes and nuclei of disintegrated cells). Possibly 
some of the small nuclei-like bodies among the cells in the sub- 
cutis may represent one stage in the development of coccidia. 
Man}- observers have, also, found various bacteria in the nodule 
and subcutis." 

"In the diphtheritic membranes on the mucous surfaces of the 
mouth, pharynx, larynx and oesophagus, the epithelial cells are 
sometimes invaded by refractive bodies in the same manner as 
the epithelial cells of the skin and in the mass of diphtheritic 
exudate and cast-off cells on the mucous surface may be found 
the well formed coccidia * * * * ^^^^ ^^^ refractive 
bodies are not found in the epithelial cells of mucous exudates 
of skin nodules in every case. I have found them only in the 
early development of the nodule and the diphtheritic exudate, 
and have never found the mature coccidium in the nodules of 
the skin." 

"When the exudate on the mucous surface or the crust of the 
nodule of the skin is torn off the raw surface bleeds rather 
freely and a fresh mount of this blood contains a short oval 
bacillus, numerous round bodies usually said to be nuclei of 
leucocytes; and a few polynuclear leucocytes. Repeated inocu- 
lations in the comb, wattles, skin and conjunctiva and oral mu- 
cosa of healthy chickens of various ages, with this blood, fresh 
from under a nodule or a diphtheritic exudate, has failed to 
produce positive infective results. I have also tested it on 
pigeons with like negative results." 



154 pouivTRY dise:ase:s and thkir treatment. 

"The exudates on the mucous membrane of the throat, mouth 
or larynx appear to be very much ahke in all forms of the 
disease." 

"The period of incubation is said to vary all the way from 2 
to 20 days. In December I placed a newly-purchased barred Ply- 
mouth Rock cock (18 mos. old) in a yard with my chickens, many 
of which were recovering from sore-head, and in 24 hours this 
cock developed a good case of sore-head on the wattles, comb 
and eye-lids. There were mosquitoes in the roosting house. 
The period of incubation varies with mode of transmission, viru- 
lency of the virus, the weather (rapid in damp warm weather 
and slower in cool and dry weather), and the age and condition 
of the chicken or pigeon. Chicks from broiling size up to 7 or 
8 months old seem to be most susceptible. Chickens with large 
combs seem to be more susceptible than birds with small combs 
and wattles." 

Treatment. The introduction of diseased birds into healthy 
flocks should be avoided. The same precautions should be prac- 
tised in the isolation of sick birds and disinfecting the houses 
as is advised for roup (p. 99). When the disease is local- 
ized a small amount of individual treatment cures many cases. 
The crust or nodules should be removed and the places treated 
with creolin (2 per cent solution) or corrosive sublimate 
(i-iooo) (p. 29) and dusted with iodoform. The iodo- 
form may be put into the eye. When the disease is not far 
advanced one such treatment may be followed by daily greasing 
with the ointment recommended on p. 30 or with vaseline or 
lard. In bad cases the iodoform should be used daily for a 
few days and then the ointment. When cases have roup or 
diphtheritic symptoms treat as recommended for roup (p. 100). 

Prognosis. "The mortality is said to vary from 50 to 70 per 
cent of the affected birds. I judge this a low per cent of losses 
if birds are left to themselves with proper care or treatment. 
But if individual treatment is patiently and regularly applied the 
mortality can be cut down to less than 20 per cent. If only the 
skin of the head, and the comb and wattles, are involved, one 
should lose less than 10 per cent. If the mouth and pharynx 
are also involved, less than 10 per cent should die. But if the 
nasal passages and trachea are involved, or the intestines become 
involved, — good care and treatment ma> save 50 to 80 per 
cent." (Cary). 



CHAPTER XYIII. 



Diseases oe the Reproductive Organs. 

The direct economic importance of poultry lies in the produc- 
tion of two things, viz., meat and eggs. For the production of 
the latter the poultryman is dependent upon the activity of the 
reproductive system of the hen. Under natural conditions in 
the wild state, the progenitors of the domestic fowl laid rela- 
tively few eggs. Judging by other species of wild birds of the 
present day, however, it is highly probable that the wild pro- 
genitors of poultry possessed the potential ability to lay much 
more than the usual number of eggs provided thjey were removed 
from the nest as fast as laid. Under domestication this practice 
of removing the eggs as fast as laid, together with the feeding 
of rich foods, and still other factors, lays heavy demands upon 
the reproductive system. It is not remarkable that an organ 
system which under conditions of nature produced from 12 to 
perhaps 30 units per annum, frequently breaks down under 
the strain of producing from 100 to 250 per annum of the same 
kind of units. It could only be expected that, as is actually the 
case, the egg producing organs would be particularly liable to 
disease. 

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 

In order that the discussion of the diseases of the reproductive 
organs may be intelligible it is desirable to preface it with a brief 
account of the anatomy and physiology of the organs of repro- 
duction in the hen. Because of the fact that the corresponding 
organs in the male are less subject to disease, on the one hand, 
and are perhaps better understood by the poultryman, because 
of the prevalence of the practice of caponizing, on the other 
hand, it will not be necessary to discuss the male in detail in 
this connection. 

The organs concerned in egg production in the hen are shown 
graphically in fig. 40. This picture and the accompanying ex- 



156 rCUL'IKY D SKASKS AND TTIKTR TRKATAfKNT, 




/ 



^''"^'^-'^-^r'^^. 



Fig. 40. The repro:liictive or egg producing organs of 
a hen. See text for explanation of figures. (After 
Duval). 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 1 57 

planation of it will make clear the various parts of this organ 
system. All of the points shown in the figure may easily be 
demonstrated on a hen, killed during a period of laying activity. 
It should be noted that this picture is somewhat diagrammatic 
and not in accord with normal conditions in respect to at least 
two points- These are : ( i ) there are two eggs in the upper por- 
tion of the oviduct. Normally there would be but one there at a 
time. (2) The proportionate lengths of albumen portion, isth- 
mus and uterus are not correctly indicated. 

In this figure the various numerals have the following sig- 
nificance : 

1. The ovary; region in wdiich the ovules (later to become 
yolks) are still small in size. 

2. An ovule in an intermediate stage of development, larger 
than those at i, but still not ready to pass into the oviduct to 
be laid. It is contained in a very vascular capsule, known tech- 
nically as the follicle. 

3. 3. Ovules still larger and containing more yolk. The low- 
er one is nearly ready to leave the ovary and pass down the 
oviduct. 

4. It will be noted that on all the larger follicles there is one 
region (forming a line) in which there are no blood vessels. 
This region (4, 4) is known as the stigma. Here the follicle 
wall breaks and allows the ovule (yolk) to leave the ovary pre- 
paratory to laying. 

5. An empty follicle in which the stigma has opened and the 
yolk passed out. 

6. Anterior end of the margin of the funnel (or infundibu- 
lum) of the oviduct or egg-tube. When an ovule is about to be 
discharged from the ovary these funnel lips or margins wrap 
around that portion of the ovary, so that the ovule may certainly 
pass into the oviduct and not into the abdominal cavity. 

7. Opening of the funnel. Through this opening the yolk 
passes into the oviduct. 

8. A yolk which has just passed through the funnel opening 
into the upper portion of the oviduct. 

9. 9. Albumen secreting portion of the oviduct in which the 
greater portion of the albumen or white of the eg^, is secreted 
by glands in the walls of the oviduct in this region. 

10. First layer of albumen, or white, secreted about the yolk. 



158 POULTRY disi:ase:s and the:ir trkatmknt. 

From this layer are formed the chalazac, or cords of twisted, 
thickened albumen, at each pole of the yolk. 

11. Yolk, around which albumen is being secreted. 

12. The germinal disc. This is the living portion of the egg, 
from which the future chick develops, the main mass of yolk 
serving as food material for the developing embryo during the 
process. 

13. Anterior end of the isthmus of the oviduct. The prim- 
ary function of the isthmus is to secrete about the egg the shell 
membrane, the dense white membrane closely adherent to the 
inside of the shell of an egg. 

14. The uterus, or shell gland, in which the shell is put on 
the egg. 

15. The rectum. 

16. The walls of the abdomen cut and folded back. 

17. External opening of the cloaca, or common space into 
which open (a) the rectum, (b) the oviduct and (e) the ureters, 
or kidney ducts. 

The processes concerned in the formation of an egg are thus 
summarized by LilHe (The Development of the Chick, New 
York, 1908, pp. 23-25) : 

"The formation of an egg takes place as follows : The yolk, 
or ovum proper, escaped by rupture of the follicle along a pre- 
formed band, the stigma (fig. 40), into the infundibulum, 
which swallows it, so to speak, and it is passed down by peris- 
taltic contractions of the oviduct. The escape of the ovum 
from the follicle is known as the process of ovulation. During 
its passage down the oviduct it becomes surrounded by layers 
of albumen secreted by the oviducal glands. The shell-mem- 
brane is secreted in the isthmus and the shell in the uterus 
(fig. 40). The ovum is fertilized in the uppermost part of the 
oviduct and the cleavage and early stages of formation of the 
germ-layers take place before the egg is laid. The time occu- 
pied by the ovum in traversing the various sections of the ovi- 
duct is estimated by Kolliker as follows : Upper two-thirds of 
the oviduct about 3 hours (formation of albumen), isthmus 
about 3 hours (secretion of shell-membrane), uterus 12 to 24 
hours (formation of shell and laying). These figures are only 
approximate and it is obvious that they are likely to vary con- 
siderably in different breeds of hens." 



POUI.TRY DISi:ASKS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 1 59 

''Some of the details of these remarkable processes deserve 
attention : The observations of several naturalists demonstrate 
that the ripe follicle is embraced by the funnel of the oviduct 
before its rupture so that the ovum does not escape into the 
body-cavity, but into the oviduct itself. Coste describes the 
process in the following way: 'In hens killed 17 to 20 hours 
after laying I have observed all the stages of this remarkable 
process. In some the follicle, still intact and enclosing its egg, 
had already been swallowed, and the mouth of the oviduct, con- 
tracted around the stalk of the capsule, seemed to exert some 
pressure on it, in other cases the ruptured capsule still partly 
enclosed the tgg which projected from the opening; in others 
finally the empty capsule had just deposited the egg in the 
entrance of the oviduct.' " 

"The existence of double-yolked eggs renders it probable that 
the oviduct can pick up eggs that have escaped into the body- 
cavity. But in some cases ova that escape into the body-cavity 
undergo resorption there." 

"Immediately after the ovum is received by the oviduct it 
appears to become softer and more flexible (Coste). The up- 
permost portion of the oviduct then secretes a special layer of 
albumen which adheres closely to the vitelline membrane and is 
prolonged in two strands, one extending up and the other down 
the oviduct; these strands become the chalazae; the layer to 
which they are attached may, therefore, be called the chalazifer- 
ous layer (Coste) of the albumen. The ovum then passes down 
the oviduct, rotating on the chalazal axis, and thus describing a 
spiral path ; the albumen which is secreted abundantly in advance 
of the ovum is therefore wrapped around the chalaziferous lay- 
er and chalazae in successive spiral layers and the chalazae are 
revolved in spiral turns. The main factor in propulsion of the 
ovum along the oviduct appears to be the peristaltic movements 
of the latter; it is probable that the cilia which line the cavity 
have something to do with the rotation of the ovum on its chala- 
zal axis." 

With this account of the anatomy and physiology of the fe- 
male organs of reproduction in hand we may proceed to a con- 
siderations of their diseases. These diseases fall at once into 
two classes: (a) those affecting the ovary and (b) those affect- 
ing the oviduct. 



l60 POUI.TRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

DISEASES OF THE OVARV. 

Atrophy of the Orary. 
By "atrophy" of the ovary is meant a diminution in size of 
that organ accompanied with a cessation of its physiological 
activity. It may shrink to the size and appearance which it 
has in a very young bird. The following sorts of atrophy of 
the ovary may be distinguished. The different sorts are sepa- 
rated from each other, not because of any difference in the end 
result, but because of the different etiological factors concerned. 

1. Physiological atrophy. 

a. Temporary. 

b. Permanent. 

2. Congenital atrophy (Pseudo-hermaphroditism). 

3. "Black atrophy." 

A physiological diminution in size or partial atrophy of the 
ovary occurs normally in fowls when after a period of laying 
they go into a more or less prolonged resting period. The con- 
dition of the ovary is usually (in fowls under 2 years old ) only 
temporary. The organ resumes its normal size and activity af- 
ter a time. In old birds (3 to 6 or more years of age) it not 
infrequently happens tliat the ovary passes into an atrophied 
condition, and remains permanently in that condition thereafter. 
In such cases the bird as a whole, and the ovary in particular, 
may be perfectly healthy, showing no sign of disease. Cases 
of permanent physiological atrophy of the ovary have Ijeen ob- 
served at this Station as follows : 

One case in a White Crested Black Polish. 

One case in a Cornish Indian Game. 

Several cases in Barred Plymouth Rocks. All of the latter 
were birds of very high fecundity (200 or more eggs per annum) 
in their pullet years. 

It should be noted that in what is here called permanent physi- 
ology atrophy of the ovary there is no associated change of the 
secondary sexual characters. That is, the hen does not assume 
cock plumage, spurs, enlarged comb and wattles, nor any other 
of the secondary sexual characters normal to the male. This 
indicates that in permanent physiological atrophy (just as is 
known to be the case in temporary) the only function of the 
ovary which is disturbed is that which is involved in egg for- 
mation. The activity of the organ in regard to producing an 



POUI.TRY DISEASES AND THKIR TREATMENT. l6l 

internal secretion which in some way controls the secondary sex- 
ual characters remains unchanged. 

As congenital atrophy of the ovary are to be classed cases of 
pseudo-hermaphroditism in fowls. In such cases a true, func- 
tioning ovary never develops. There may be a body which in 
gross features resembles an ovary, but it is inactive and does not 
take even the first steps in oogenesis {tgg formation). 

There may or may not be a testis like body present in these 
cases. Not only is the ^gg producing activity absent in such 
cases, but also in many of them at least, the internal secretion 
normally produced by the ovary is lacking also. The bird then 
takes on some or all of the secondary sexual characters of the 
male. The appearance of such a bird is shown in fig. 41. 




Fig. 41. Showing a case of incomplete hermaphroditism. In front of 
the line a-b the bird has the characters of the male, behind it the 
characters of the female. The ovary was not functional in this bird. 
(Original). 

As "black atrophy" of the ovary is here designated the 
peculiar disease of the ovary first observed more than a cen- 
tury ago in England as occurring in pheasants. The striking 
feature of the disease is that under its influence the bird assumes 
the plumage appropriate to the male. The change in the ovary 
and oviduct induced by the disease appears to be an atrophy ac- 
companied by a blackening which is probably a true melanosis. 
The following account of an outbreak of this disease about 50 



l62 POULTRY DISKASKS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

years ago, written by Hamilton (Proc. Zool. Soc, London, 1862, 
p. 24) is of interest: "In the years 1858, 1859, and i860 this 
pecuHar alteration of structure in the female organs of genera- 
tion in the Pheasants was particularly prevalent in some parts 
of England. I had the opportunity of examining many speci- 
mens, and was able completely to confirm Mr. Yarrell's views 
on this subject. Indeed, the majority of the birds were young 
females, many of them being birds of the year, some being in 
their first moult. I found also that the plumage varied and 
approached that of the male, not in accordance with the age of 
the bird, but with the amount of disease of the generative or- 
gans. The greater the destruction of the ovarium and oviduct, 
the nearer the plumage assimilated that of the male." 

''For example, in birds with the hen-plumage predominating, 
the ovarium and oviduct exist as in the fecundating hen, the 
small ova lying in considerable numbers in the ovarium, the 
ovarium and oviduct showing dark lead-coloured masses of dis- 
ease." 

"In birds with the plumage of the male in a measure exceed- 
ing that of the female, the ovarium is considerably diminished 
in size, dark-coloured, and containing only a few blackened 
ova; the oviduct is spotted with dark patches, and considerably 
contracted." 

"And thirdly, in birds with the male plumage predominating 
over that of the female, the ovarium is reduced to a small dark 
amorphous mass, resembling the coagulated blood, the presence 
of ova cannot be detected, and the oviduct is almost entirely ob- 
literated at its junction with the ovarium. Thus it seems that 
there are 3 distinct phases in this peculiar abnormal state of the 
generative functions." 

"I have also noticed that, in most cases where the male plum- 
age is in excess of the female, the tail-feathers are particularly 
long, some being as much as 19 inches in length." 

"Although Mr. Yarrell states that this condition of the female 
generative organs is not confined to the Phasianidae, and that it 
has occurred in the gold and silver pheasants, partridges, pea- 
fowls, common-fowl, common pigeon, king-fisher, and common 
duck, and that other classes of animals are liable to an influence 
similar in kind, particularly among insects and Crustacea, yet 
this disorganization is rarely observed except among the Phasi- 
anidae, and particularly when these birds are produced in a do- 



POULTRY DISI^ASKS AND THKIR TREATMENT. 163 

mestic state, i. e., on the present system of breeding pheasants 
in preserves. Very few battues take place in which some of 
these birds (generally designated males) are not killed and 
mixed indiscriminately with the heaps of the slain." 

''As to the cause of this disorganization, if it occurred only 
in the old female, or if it were a common occurrence among birds 
either of different genera or of the same genus, it could be easily 
accounted for ; but when it is generally found existing among a 
class of birds which are bred in vast numbers in a particularly 
artificial manner, it leads one to suppose that the cause must 
be connected with this condition." 

In regard to all sorts of atrophy of the ovary it should be 
said that there is no known way to treat them. Such cases when 
they appear must be accepted by the poultryman as one of the 
vicissitudes of the business. 

Gangrene of the Ovary. 

Salmon and other writers on poultry diseases following him 
have designated as gangrene a condition of the ovary relatively 
often found at post-mortem. Salmon's discussion of the mat- 
ter is as follows : ''This disease is quite common with all vari- 
eties of poultry. On examination of the ovary after death, the 
ova are found in different stages of development, but instead of 
being yellowish-pink in color, with the blood vessels well defined, 
they are brown or black, easily crushed and the contents broken 
down into a putrid liquid. Death is caused partly by peritoni- 
tis and partly by the absorption of the products of decomposi- 
tion." 

"The cause of this trouble is not well understood. It has been 
attributed to the birds being too fat thus compressing the ovary 
and hindering the evolution of the ova. As it may occur in birds 
which are not fat and as it is evidently accompanied by the pen- 
etration and multiplication of bacteria, it is possibly an infec- 
tous disease." 

We have not been able to find anywhere in the literature that 
there has been a thorough investigation of this disease. 

Ovarian Tumors. 

Tumors and cancerous growths on the ovary are not uncom- 
mon. These include several sorts of interest to the pathologist, 
but not to the practical poultryman. From the literature it ap- 



l64 POUI.TRY DISKASKS AND THE:iR TRI:ATMKNT. 

pears that at least the following (and probably other) kinds of 
new growths are found to occur on. the ovary with greater or 
less frequency. 

1. Benign tumors, of several types, including yolk 
tumors. 

2. Carcinoma. 

3. Dermoid cysts. 

"Treatment is, of course, impossible in these cases as the 
nature of the disease is not determined until after the bird's 
death. If such abnormal conditions are frequently found, it is 
an indication that there is a predisposition in that direction in 
the strain of birds. The only way to correct this is to kill off 
the flock and obtain different blood." (Salmon). 

Abortion of Bggs. 

Regarding this matter Wright (New Book of Poultry, p. 
574) has the following to say : "This is not to be confounded 
with the laying of soft eggs. These last are laid when mature, 
and usually by fat birds; but when violently driven or startled, 
or subject to violence of any kind, or even if suddenly and great- 
ly terrified, immature yolks are sometimes detached from the 
ovary and expelled. This is most likely to happen with pullets 
not yet laying but about to lay, and being a real miscarriage or 
abortion, may wreck the constitution of a valuable bird unless 
attended to. It is distinguished from the other by not occurring 
as a rule in fat birds; by the immature and small size of the 
yolk or yolks ; generally also by hemorrhage ; and always by 
signs of illness of chicks afterwards. Any such bird should 
be placed for a few days in a quiet and comfortable but rather 
dark pen, with a nest in case of need, and fed on a little bread 
and milk. Quiet rest is the main thing, but 20 grains bromide 
of potassium may be dissolved in half a pint of drinking water. 
With such care the event may be entirely recovered from." 

Yolk Hypertrophy. 

There are a number of cases on record where the yolks 
formed by the ovary have been very much larger than normal. 
1'hese "giant yolks" are due to a diseased condition of the organ, 
possibly contingent upon too much forcing for egg production. 
Such cases have been described by Gurlt (Mag. f. d. ges. Tier- 
heilk, 1849) 2.nd more recently by von Durski (Die pathol. 



POULTRY DISE:ASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 165 

Veranderungen des Eies und Eileiters bei den Vogeln. Berlin, 
1907). When yolks become very large in this way they may 
break loose from the ovary without any rupture of the follicle 
wall along the stigma but a breaking or tearing loose of the 
stalk or pedicle of the follicle. 

Failure of Follicle Wall to Rupture. 

Closely connected with the last diseased condition is one dis- 
cussed by von Durski in which the follicle wall fails to rupture 
and release the yolk. In consequence of this, in the case de- 
scribed by von Durski, the follicle wall became stretched and 
pulled out into a long and very much twisted stalk. This stalk 
held the hard, and decayed yolk fast to the ovary. In cases of 
this kind the stalk sometimes breaks, and the yolk enclosed in 
the follicle and with the end of the stalk attached, passes down 
the oviduct acquiring albumen, membranes and shell. In still 
other instances the stalk breaks and the follicle and contained 
yolk drops into the abdominal cavity. 

DISEASES OE THE OVIDUCT. 

Diseases of the oviduct are relatively common and cause a 
steady, and probably in the aggregate rather large loss to the 
poultryman. Fortunately some of the diseases of the oviduct 
are more amenable to treatment than are those of the ovary. 
Further these diseases in many cases show plain external symp- 
toms at a relatively early stage. Then they may be recognized 
and treated while it is still possible to effect a cure. This is 
usually not the case with ovarian diseases. 

The general external symptoms of the commoner diseases of 
the oviduct are very much like those of constipation. The poul- 
tryman watching his birds is indeed rather likely to confuse the 
two. But if so no harm is done. The thorough cleaning out 
of the alimentary tract, and stimulation of the liver indicated 
in the treatment of constipation is the very best thing to be 
done in cases of inflammation and similar disorders of the ovi- 
duct. 

Inflammation of Oviduct. 

This is one of the most important and common diseases of the 
oviduct. It may occur alone or in association with other mor- 
bid conditions of this organ. 



l66 POUI.TRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

Diagnosis. Hill (Diseases of Poultry) gives the following 
symptoms : ''A bird affected with inflammation of the egg pas- 
sage suffers acutely. At first there is a continual and violent 
straining (sometimes resulting in apoplexy). The wings are 
dropped and the feathers puffed out. The vent is usually hot 
and if a thermometer be inserted the temperature will be found 
high, frequently 105 to 107 degrees.* As the inflammation pro- 
ceeds the bird becomes more and more mopish and exhausted 
but does not strain so violently, pain and exhaustion acting as 
preventatives. Ultimately the temperature becomes lower, the 
body cold and with a few, convulsive gasps the sufferer dies." 

To these symptoms Salmon adds the following, basing his 
account largely upon the statements given by Ziirn : "The bird 
at first shows indications of a desire to lay without being able 
to produce eggs or it may lay eggs containing more or less blood 
or eggs without shells or small and misshaped eggs containing 
albumen but no yolk, or finally the yolk may be dropped with- 
out any covering of albumen or shell. As the inflammation in- 
creases there is high temperature, straining and an effort to rub 
the abdomen upon the ground. In later stages the bird becomes 
dull, indisposed to move, the comb is pale, the plumage rough 
and the temperature falls to normal or below." 

Etiology. There are probably to be distinguished three 
classes of causes which lead to inflammation of the oviduct. 
These are : 

1. Physiological; from irritation due to too frecjuent laying 
or from too stimulating foods or condiments. 

2. Traumatic ; from irritation due to too large eggs, or to the 
breaking of eggs within the oviduct, or similar causes. 

3. Specific infection ; it is probably that alone or in combina- 
tion with the causes classed under i and 2 a specific infection 
of the lining membranes of the oviduct may occur. 

In an inflamed oviduct there very often is a copious sero-fibri- 
nous exudate. This hardens about any foreign body {^gg, 
broken tgg, etc.) which may be in the oviduct, and by accretion 
causes this foreign body to increase in size. This, of course, 



*There must be some mistake about this. 105° to 107° are not at all 
high temperatures for the domestic fowl. In fact in our experience 
at this Station 105° would seem to be a slightly subnormal temperature 
rather than one indicating fever. 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. J67 

makes it still more irritating which in turn provokes further 
inflammation of the walls of the duct. One som.etimes finds rel- 
atively enormous masses of material in a diseased oviduct, which 
have been built up in this way. There is an extensive literature 
on these ''tgg concrements" or "yolk tumors" built up either in 
the oviduct or in the abdominal cavity by hardened fibrous exu- 
date, about an original basis of a broken, or miscarried, or 
aborted yolk or yolks. It is not necessary to review this liter- 
ature here as it is only of interest to the specialist. 

Treatment. If this disease is to be dealt with at all the treat- 
ment must be individual, since it is something which will never 
affect considerable numbers of the flock at the same time. If 
individual treatment is to be successful it must be begun at a 
relatively early stage of the disease. Therefore, it is important 
that a bird showing the symptoms which have been described 
above should be isolated at once and as a first step in the treat- 
ment given a purgative dose of Epsom salts (see p. 29). All 
stimulating foods such as meat, green cut bone, linseed meal and 
similar substances, as well as condiments like condition powders, 
pepper, etc., should be immediately taken away from the bird. 
A light ration and plenty of green food should be given. Sal- 
mon recommends following the purgative with >4 drop of tinc- 
ture of aconite root 3 times a day. Equally effective, and much 
easier to administer, will be found i-io gr. aconite root tablets 
(see p. 30). 

Prolapse of the Oviduct (Bversion). 

It not infrequently happens from one cause or another, that 
the lower portion of the oviduct becomes everted and projects 
from the vent as a mass of red or purplish tissue. This condi- 
tion is known as prolapsus of the oviduct. 

Diagnosis. The diagnosis of this diseased condition is simple 
and consists merely in the observation of the prolapsed oviduct. 
If there is a mass of red or bloody tissue projecting from the 
vent one is safe in diagnosing prolapsus. The only point which 
needs particular attention in the diagnosis is as to the degree to 
w^hich prolapsus has occurred when the bird is discovered. The 
importance of this lies in the fact that on it depends the treat- 
ment which it is advisable to give. Where the prolapse is only 
partial and is discovered early it is advisable to treat it by the 
methods outlined below. If, on the other hand, the prolapse is 



l68 POULTRY DISEASES AND THETR TREATMENT. 

extensive and has existed for some time before the bird is seen 
?o that the mass of tissue has turned a blue or purphsh color or 
has been pretty extensively picked and torn by the other birds 
in the pen, then it is useless to carry on any treatment and the 
proper thing to do is to kill the bird at once. 

Etiology. Prolapse of the oviduct may be caused by a num- 
ber of different things. It is observed not only in old hens, but, 
in our experience, quite as frequently in pullets. The funda- 
mental cause of the condition is, of course, a weakness of the 
oviduct walls, and ligaments, chiefly in respect to their muscular 
portions, which makes the oviduct unable to stand the strains 
put upon it in egg production. The immediate cause may be 
either : 

1. Straining to lay a very large (double yolked) egg. This 
is perhaps the most common cause. 

2. Straining to lay when there is an obstruction in the ovi- 
duct (egg bound). 

3. Constipation. The rectum full of hardened feces stimu- 
lates all organs in that region of the body to expulsive reflexes. 

4. Ziirn says that often times feces may become lodged in 
the cloaca in a sort of blind pocket, and then set up the same 
expulsive reflexes as an egg in the cloacal or vaginal regions 
normally does. In the effort to expel this foreign body the ovi- 
duct may become everted. 

The most serious thing about prolapsus is that if not discov- 
ered very shortly after it occurs it is almost sure to result fatally, 
because the everted portion will become so badly infected as to 
cause blood poisoning, or the protruding mass of tissue will be 
picked and torn by the other birds in the pen until there is no 
hope of repair, whatever the treatment. 

Treatment. As stated above, the advisability of treating pro- 
lapsus depends upon its degree and duration before discovery. 

In treating this condition the first thing to endeavor to do is 
to remove the cause. That is, if the bird is constipated give it 
a rectal enema of warm soapy water, followed by ^ teaspoon 
of Epsom salts by the mouth. If there is a lump of feces lodged 
in the cloaca this should be carefully removed. The protruding 
mass of tissue should be washed with warm i to 1000 bichloride 
of mercury solution, or a warm ^ per cent cresol solution. Af- 
ter the protruding parts are thoroughly cleansed they should be 
well greased with vaseline, or with the ointment already recom- 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 169 

mended (p. 30). Then with the fingers well greased an ef- 
fort should be made to replace the protruding mass in the body. 
In doing this one should proceed with the greatest gentleness. 
In most cases with care and patience it is possible to reduce the 
prolapsus, that is, to get the extruded tissue back into the body 
in approximately its normal position. 

After the parts have been carefully replaced in normal posi- 
tion the next point to be considered in the treatment is to insure 
that they shall stay there. That is to say, it is necessary some 
way to bring about a healthy degree of contraction of the mus- 
cular walls of the oviduct so as to hold the parts in place per- 
manently. In order to do this Salmon recommends the use of 
ergot. Robinson follows Salmon in this recommendation. It 
should be said, however, that it is doubtful whether this treat- 
ment is advisable. Ergot is a rather violent poison for poultry, 
[t seems likely that the treatment recommended by Salmon and 
Robinson is based on a theory that the action which ergot has 
on the mammalian uterus will be duplicated on the fowl's ovi- 
duct rather than upon actual experience in administering the 
drug to poultry. The measure recommended by Ziirn to brine 
about a healthy contraction of the replaced oviduct in cases of 
prolapsus would seem to be simpler and on the whole more 
likely to yield desirable results than the ergot treatment. Ziirn 
recommends that a lump of ice be placed in the cloaca after the 
prolapsed oviduct is returned to its place and that this treatment 
be followed up for some hours. 

The bird should be kept in a small coop, partly darkened, 
where there will be every inducement for it to remain perfectly 
quiet. The success of the treatment depends very much on 
keeping the bird quiet for a few days. It should be fed only 
a light and unstimulating ration with plenty of green food. 
Prognosis. If discovered early enough prolapsus is curable. 

Obstruction of the Oi'iduct f'Bgg Bound''). 
Perhaps the commonest of all diseased conditions of the ovi- 
duct is that which leads the poultryman to say that a bird is ''egg 
bound." By this is meant that there is something in the oviduct 
which the bird is not able to pass to the outside and which in 
turn prevents the normal passage of eggs. In many cases this 
is not properly speaking a disease at all but rather an accident. 
Other cases, however, depend upon a true diseased condition 
of the oviduct. 



170 POULTRY DISEASES AND THKIR TREATMENT. 

Diagnosis. Salmon describes the following symptoms: 
"When fowls are egg bound they at first go frequently to the 
nest, making efforts to lay but are unable to accomplish this 
function. They are restless and evidently in more or less dis- 
tress. Later they become dull, with rough plumage and are 
indisposed to move. On examining the bird by pressure of the 
finger about the vent, the egg can be distinguished as a hard 
body in the posterior part of the abdominal cavity. In case of 
prolapsus, the everted oviduct may be easily seen." 

In this connection, however, it should be noted that these gen- 
eral symptoms which Salmon describes are observed in mild 
form in a great many cases with birds which subsequently lay 
the Ggg without trouble. In many instances the extrusion of 
an egg which is finally successfully laid is attended with a good 
deal of difficulty. There are all degrees of gradation between 
this somewhat difficult but still normal laying and the condition 
of complete obstruction of the oviduct where the egg cannot be 
passed at all. The practical consideration to which this leads 
is that one should not be too hasty in applying treatment for the 
egg-bound condition. A diagnosis of the trouble, in other 
words, should not be finally settled upon until there remains no 
doubt that the hen is not going to pass the egg without help from 
the outside. 

It must also be remembered that in many cases of obstruction 
of the oviduct, the obstruction is so far up that it cannot be felt 
from the outside. In such cases the diagnosis must be made 
upon the general behavior of the hen, and in particular in regard 
to going frequently on the nest without laying. 

Etiology. In considering the causes of obstruction of the ovi- 
duct it is necessary to distinguish between several different sorts 
or categories. This may be done as follows : 

I. Simple "egg bound" condition, in which a normal egg is 
lodged in the uterus or vagina and cannot be expelled. This 
inability to expel the egg may be due to any one or a combination 
of the following causes acting together : 

a. Egg of too large size, so that it is mechanically difficult 
or impossible to force it through the natural passage. Robinson 
regards this as the most common cause. 

b. Exhaustion (true physiological fatigue) of the muscu- 
lar walls of the oviduct. This condition results after long con- 
tinued and unsuccessful attempts to expe Ithe egg. It leads to 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THKIR TREATMENT. 171 

c. Atony and paralysis of the duct in which the muscular 
walls are incapable of making any effective contraction at all. 

2. Complicated "egg bound" conditions in which the funda- 
mental source of the trouble is not simply mechanical, and in 
which usually the portions of the oviduct anterior to the uterus 
are involved. In this general category the following sorts of 
cases are to be included. 

a. Atony and paralysis of the upper portions of the ovi- 
duct. This condition may exist for a long time without being 
recognized. 

b. Inflammation of the oviduct leading to tae formation of 
fibrous exudate which accumulates in the duct, until it may form 
a mass of relatively enormous size (usually with one or more 
yolks as a nucleus) completely obstructing the duct, and event- 
ually leading either to gangrene or rupture of the walls, or both. 

c. Volvolus, or twisting of the oviduct about its own long 
axis, completely obliterating the cavity. 

d. Stenosis or stricture of the oviduct. This may result 
from several causes. One frequent one is that in laying a very 
large Qgg the oviduct wall becomes torn to greater or less degree, 
and subsequently heals. The scar tissue contracts the cavity 
and a stricture is thus caused. 

Treatment. Whether treatment is or is not likely to be ef- 
fective depends upon which of the two main categories above 
defined any given case belongs to. Simple obstruction of the 
oviduct may be successfully treated. In cases of complicated 
obstruction treatment is not indicated, for a variety of reasons. 
These conditions are in the first place difficult to diagnose, and 
offer little prospect of successful cure even after a diagnosis 
has been made. 

The best advice which has come to our attention for the treat- 
ment of the simple egg bound condition was published some 
years ago in the English Journal "Poultry" and is here quoted 
verbatim : 

*'It is a good plan to watch those birds that are about to lay. 
Should they visit the nest frequently during the course of the 
day and leave without depositing an egg, it is almost certain that 
something is wrong and when a pullet is in such a state there 
are three good remedies that may be tried. The first is : Take 
the bird up gently, and hold her so that her stern is over the 
mouth of a jug of boiling water, that the steam arising there- 



172 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

from may get to the parts and help to relax and procure deliv- 
ery of the egg. If this has not the desired effect after an hour's 
rest in a quiet coop, the vent should be oiled gently with a feath- 
er, and the hen given a powder composed of i grain of calomel 
and I- 1 2 grain of tartar emetic. The powder may be mixed in 
a bolus of food, and put into the bird's crop. If it be acting 
properly a marked improvement should be noticeable in the 
bird a few hours afterwards, while a second powder given two 
days subsequently will probably complete the cure. It is advis- 
able for a while to feed the fowl sparingly on a somewhat low 
diet, withholding any fat forming food, and giving lime-water 
to drink, after the system is rid of the powder. The second 
remedy was advocated by Dr. H. B. Greene, ****** 
and is best applied when the egg can be felt. It is : — Let an as- 
sistant, seated on a chair, hold the bird firmly on his knees on 
its back, with the vent directed away from him. Seating your- 
self opposite, with the finger and thumb of the left hand out- 
side the bird's body, push the egg firmly but carefully towards 
the vent, until it is plainly visible, and, keeping it in that posi- 
tion, with a bradawl in the right hand puncture the egg shell, 
evacuate the contents of the egg with an egg-spoon, and after- 
wards with a pair of tweezers break down and take out the 
shell piece by piece until assured by passing the finger into the 
vent, that the cloaca is empty. Special care must be taken to 
avoid injuring the bird with the point of the awl ; and one's as- 
sistant must maintain a steady and firm hold on the fowl. A 
third method of relieving an egg bound hen was recommended 
by a correspondent in our issue of June lo, 1898, and has since 
been frequently tried by several poultry keepers, and found very 
efificacious. 'When a hen is in that state I hold her over some 
hot water, bathing the vent at the same time. After this I use a 
small penknife (blunt) in the following manner: — Placing the 
edge of the blade along the first finger so that the end is level 
with the finger end, I push the finger with the knife into the 
vent until they touch the egg; then I begin to scrape until I hear 
that I have scraped the rind or skin away from the egg (I mean 
outside the egg). The hen is then placed on the nest, and I 
will guarantee she will lay in 20 minutes, or in most cases even 
less than that. I got this advice from a man who has kept 
poultry on a small scale for 50 years. I have tried it several 
times, and have never known a hen to be egg bound a second 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 1 73 

time. This method, it would appear, saves the egg. The great 
thing throughout is to keep the bird quiet, and in future to avoid 
extra fat forming food.' " 

Prognosis. Good in cases of simple obstruction if taken in 
hand early; bad in all cases of complicated obstruction. 

Rupture of the Oviduct. 

In some cases of complicated obstruction, and in cases of 
severe inflammation the walls of the oviduct may break and al- 
low the contents to escape into the abdominal cavity. In such 
cases death usually ensues in a relatively short time as a result 
of peritonitis. These cases are incurable ; indeed the trouble is 
usually not known till after the bird dies. The lower portion 
of the oviduct (vagina) or the cloaca may be ruptured in pass- 
ing a very large ^gg. If the wounds made in this way are rela- 
tively small they will usually heal without any trouble. If, on 
the other hand, such tears are extensive they may very easily 
become infected, and unless treated properly in accordance with 
the general directions given in Chapter XX for the treatment 
of wounds, the bird will die of blood poisoning. Regarding 
cases of this kind the following excehent discussion (presum- 
ably written by Mr. J. H. Robinson) appeared in Farm Poul- 
try some 6 years ago (Vol. i6, p. 230). The writer says 
that this trouble of rupture of the oviduct near the vent he 
"used to have with Buff Leghorns, and to a lesser extent with 
other varieties of the Leghorn. Leghorn hens quite generally 
lay larger eggs in proportion to their size than others. Some of 
them lay eggs very much larger in proportion to their size than 
layers of large eggs in the larger breeds. As a result of this 
the difficulty of laying is correspondingly increased. When a 
pullet begins to lay she may lay small eggs, which are easily 
passed. As warm spring weather comes she lays more eggs, 
and also larger ones. Suppose one day there is a slight tear or 
a strain on a part of the oviduct in laying. The part is not 
badly damaged, but it is sore, a little- inflamed, and cannot be 
stretched as it was before to permit the passage of the ^gg. But 
the tgg is there and must be extruded. A larger tear in the 
parts is the result. There may be blood enough flow to make 
the Qgg quite bloody, but the injury be not yet serious. With 
the next ^gg conditions are still less favorable for a safe extru- 



174 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

sion, and perhaps a very bad rupture results, ending in the 
course of a few days fatally." 

''I don't think it profitable to attempt to treat such cases. 
Some cures may be effected, but it is not always easy to check 
laying without starving the hen, and even that treatment may 
not operate quickly enough to avoid a bad rupture. Every Ggg 
passed while the vent and adjacent parts of the passage are not 
in normal condition is a possible cause of fatal trouble." 

"The best way to treat this trouble is to prevent it by selecting 
medium sized eggs for hatching. Select breeders of good size; 
select good but not excessively large eggs from these ; use males 
from stock of the same characteristics, and avoid the use of 
males (and of hens too) that are narrow bodied." 

Gangrene of Oviduct. 

This may result from severe and complicated obstruction. 
What is meant by ''gangrene" is that the walls of the oviduct 
die, and putrefy. This causes general blood poisoning from 
which the bird dies. Gangrene of the oviduct most frequently 
follows severe cases of complicated obstruction where there is 
a mass of fibrous exudate deposited in the oviduct. There is 
not the slightest hope of successfully treating such cases. 

Breaking of Bgg in Oviduct. 

It sometimes happens that an ^gg in the upper portion of the 
oviduct, before it has acquired any shell, is by accident broken. 
There is a belief common amongst poultrymen that this is al- 
ways immediately fatal. There is but little discussion of the 
subject in the literature but our experience here indicates that 
two sorts of results may follow the breaking of an Qgg in the 
oviduct. These are : 

1. An inflammatory condition of the oviduct is induced lead- 
ing to copious secretion from the glands of the albumen portion 
of the duct and the isthmus. There is also a copious fibrous ex- 
udate, and the final outcome is a severe case of complicated ob- 
struction of the oviduct. Death in these cases may be delayed 
for a long time after the original accident. In the absence of 
inflammation recovery may possibly occur. 

2. Death within a short time (2 to 3 hours) after the break- 
ing of the &gg, without visible lesion of any organ of the body. 
The oviduct is not even inflamed. Absolutely the only things 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 175 

which are not normal in such cases are (a) the broken egg in 
the oviduct, and (b) the fact that the bird is dead. We have 
had several such cases come to autopsy. They are very puz- 
zling. In them is to be found the basis for the poultryman's 
belief as to the fatal character of this accident. In reality it 
seems probable that in these cases the thing which caused the 
egg to be broken was also the cause of the death of the bird. 
That is, a blow, or any sort of sudden shock violent enough to 
break an egg in the oviduct might also very well be the cause of 
death. Such cases need further study. 

Abnormal Bggs. 

Owing to various diseased conditions of the oviduct many 
different kinds of abnormal eggs are produced by fowls. The 
explanation of the different types of such eggs is usually tol- 
erably clear if one gets definitely in his mind the normal physi- 
ology of egg production as outlined above. We shall con- 
sider here only some of the more important general classes of 
such abnormal eggs. Such eggs are very interesting from the 
scientific standpoint but are of relatively little practical signifi- 
cance to the poultry keeper because of the rarity of their occur- 
rence. 

Soft-shelled Bggs. These are eggs laid without a sufficient 
amount of shell substance covering the shell membrane. The 
immediate cause lies in a failure of the uterus to function prop- 
erly. Regarding this class of abnormal eggs Wright has the 
following to say: "Soft eggs may be caused by lack of shell- 
material, which, if discovered, points to the remedy, the most 
rapid being pounded raw oyster-shell. Or they may be caused 
by the fowls being driven or frightened, in which case they soon 
cease, and nothing need be done unless the injury has been so 
severe as to prematurely detach small and unripe yolks, when 
the case becomes a real abortion, or they may be caused by con- 
diments and too much animal food, spices in particular leading 
frequently to all sorts of trouble with the egg-organs, particu- 
larly in the Mediterranean races of poultry. A few small doses 
of Epsom salts or jalap, and cessation of the extra stimulus, 
will remedy this. But far the most usual cause is simple over- 
feeding. A little careful investigation will find which is in fault, 
and that wall indicate the appropriate remedy. Want of shell 



176 POUI.TRY DISKASE:S and THKIR TREATMENT. 

material is far less common than it used to be ; over-feeding or 
over-stimulation probably more so." 

Small, Yolklcss Eggs. These little eggs, variously called 
'Svind-eggs," "cock eggs," "witch eggs," "luck eggs," etc., are 
familiar to every poultry keeper. They contain no definitely 
formed yolk, and to the casual observer seem to consist of 
nothing but a small shell filled with white. The laying of one 
of these eggs is popularly supposed to mark the end of a laying 
period. This belief is without foundation in fact. They may 
be produced at any time. Unpublished data collected over a 
period of years at this Station in regard to such eggs indicate 
that three factors are fundamentally concerned in their pro- 
duction. These are : — 

1. The bird must be in an active laying condition; the more 
pronounced the degree of physiological activity of the oviduct 
the more likely are these eggs to be produced. 

2. There must be some foreign body, however minute, to 
serve as the stimulus which shall start the albumen glands se- 
creting. This foreign body may be either a minute piece of 
hardened albumen, a bit of coagulated blood, a small piece of 
yolk which has escaped from a ruptured yolk, etc. 

3. It seems likely, though this is a point not yet definitely 
settled, that ovulation (i. e., the separation of a yolk from the 
ovary) must precede the secretion of albumen around the for- 
eign body to form one of these eggs. 

Double and Triple Yolked Eggs. Eggs with two yolks are, 
of course, quite common. They result from a disturbance of 
the time relations of ovulation, of such nature that two yolks 




Fig. 42. Triple yoll<ed egg. (Original). 



POULTRY DISKASKS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 177 

get into the oviduct at nearly the same time and become sur- 
rounded by common layers of albumen. 

Eggs with three yolks are very rare. An tgg of this kind 
laid by a pullet at this Station is shown in fig. 42. 

Inclusion in Eggs. The number of different foreign sub- 
stances which at one time or another have been found enclosed 
in eggs is great. The list includes blood streaks or spots, blood 
clots of firm consistency and often considerable size, lumps of 
bacteria, worms, fecal matter, etc., etc. 

From the practical standpoint the only inclusions which need 
consideration are blood spots. Many inquiries are annually 
received at this Station as to what causes these spots and what 
to do to get eggs which will be free from them. These inquir- 
ies are most frequent in the spring months. The only thing 
which can be done in such cases is to candle the eggs, and sell 
only those which shozv no spots. Hens which are perfectly nor- 
mal often lay eggs with blood spots, especially in the spring of 
the year when laying is heavy. The blood which makes the 
spot probably comes in most cases from the ovarian follicle. 
When this ruptures a little blood escapes into the oviduct and 
is caught up in the albumen. The so-called "liver" or "meat" 
spots in eggs are in nearly every case thoroughly hardened, 
well packed together, blood clots. , They may be of large size. 
These inclusions do not represent, as they are sometimes said 
to, portions of the oviduct wall which have been torn oft' and 
enclosed in the ^gg. 

Bggs of Abnormal Shape. There are many other kinds of 
abnormal eggs besides those here discussed, but as they have 
no practical significance it is not desirable to devote further 
space to them. In closing this section we append some figures 
showing in outline some of the curiously shaped eggs which 
have been found. 

Vent Gleet (Cloacitis). 

This is a true venereal disease of poultry. It usually begins 
with a hen but is transmitted in copulation to the male, and by 
him to other birds in the flock. 

Diagnosis. Salmon gives the following clear account of the 
symptoms : "The first symptom observed is the frequent pas- 
sage of excrement which is voided in small quantities almost 
as rapidly as it reaches the cloaca. Often the bird endeavors 



178 



POULTRY DISKASKS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 




Fig W. 



Figll 



F,glZ 



Fgl3 




FigW 



/. / 



Fig. 15 



/I 



\-;». 




FgI6 



Fig!? 




F.gIS 



Fig IS 



Fg 20 



a 

Fig 21 



Fig. 43. Showing shapes of abnormal eggs sometimes found. (From 
von Durski after Landois). 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. J 79 

to drop excrement when cloaca is entirely empty. This action 
is due to the tenderness and irritability of the cloaca which gives 
to the bird the sensation of fullness, and produces spasmodic 
contractions. If an examination is made the mucous membrane 
is found in the early stages to be red, dry, swollen and hot. In 
a day or two a discharge makes its appearance. It is, at first, 
thin and watery, but soon becomes white, purulent, and offen- 
sive. This discharge collects upon the skin and feathers about 
the vent, obstructs the passage and irritates the parts with which 
it comes in contact. The soiled skin becomes red and inflamed, 
it may be abraded by friction or by the bird picking at it, and 
thus sores or ulcers are started which may become quite trou- 
blesome." 

Etiology. The cause of the disease has not yet been thor- 
oughly worked out. Wright suspected it to be identical with 
human gonorrhea because of the similarity of symptoms, in- 
fectiousness, etc. However, he has not been able to isolate the 
Gonococciis, or specific germ of gonorrhea from affected birds. 

Treatment. The following is the treatment outlined by 
Wright: ''Any hen found with it should at once be isolated, 
and the male bird carefully examined, and if necessary also 
isolated. Give 30 grains Epsom salts, and twice a day inject 
first a 4 per cent solution of cocaine, and immediately after- 
wards a solution of nitrate of silver 4 grains to the ounce. The 
fifth day commence a small copaiba capsule daily, and inject 
acetate of lead, i drachm to the pint. Feed rather low mean- 
while, and dust any sore places outside with iodoform or aristol. 
If not well after 2 or 3 weeks, we would kill the bird, as the 
disease is not quite free from danger; for if the operator should 
touch his eyes accidentally before he has cleansed his hands, the 
result might be a most violent inflammation." 

''Break Down.'' 

Sanborn (Farm Poultry Doctor) gives an account of this 
trouble, which, while brief, is to the point, and says all that 
really needs to be said about the matter. Especially to be com- 
mended is the last sentence. 

''This is the 'baggy condition' often seen in old hens that have 
had too much corn. The rear part of the abdomen is crowded 
with fat and hangs down, sometimes to the ground, giving a very 
unhandsome appearance to the bird. The ceasing to feed corn 



l8o POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

and other fat-producing foods will sometimes remedy this con- 
dition, but a bird that has been allowed to get into such a shape 
is spoiled for Hfe both as a layer and breeder. The hatchet 
and pot should be the fate of such a bird." 

Diseases of the Male Reproductive Organs. 

A number of diseases of the male reproductive organs have 
been described but they are all of no practical significance, for 
the reason that no poultryman ought ever to use as a breeder a 
male bird that ever had any disease of these organs, whether it 
had been "cured" or not. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



DiSEiASES OF^ Chicke:ns. 
White Diarrhea. 

Of all the diseases which the poiiltryman is called upon to 
fight, there is probably none so destructive, year after year, as 
the disease (or diseases) known as "white diarrhea." The losf 
of chicks ascribed to this cause varies in different years and is 
different places from lo to 90 per cent. It is perhaps not too 
much to say that more than 50 per cent of the chicks hatched 
throughout the country are lost from white diarrhea in its vari- 
ous forms. The number of inquiries concerning this disease 
which are annually received, and the amount of space devoted 
to it by the poultry press, lead one to believe that "white diar- 
rhea" is perhaps the worst enemy with which the poultryman 
must contend. 

White diarrhea is more common among artificially hatched 
and brooded chicks than among those which have been hatched 
and cared for by hens. However, it is by no means unknown 
among the latter. Many poultrymen report as heavy mortality 
from this disease among hen hatched and reared chicks as 
from those which were incubated and brooded by artificial 
methods. 

Almost any chick that comes out of the shell apparently 
healthy on the 21st day will five for the first week. If white 
diarrhea is going to strike the brood they usually begin to show 
symptoms about the end of the first week or later. The heavy 
loss of chicks from this disease occurs between the ages of i and 
3 weeks. Where the brood is badly affected chicks may con- 
tinue to die until the fourth or fifth week. On the other hand 
if a brood goes through its first 3 weeks of life without being 
attacked by this disease it is practically safe from its ravages. 
White diarrhea then may be said to be limited to the first 3 
weeks of the chick's Hfe so far as serious mortality from it is 
concerned. The reason for this no doubt is that the digestive 



l82 POUI.TRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

system of chicks under 3 weeks old is so delicate that even a 
slight disturbance makes a very serious handicap for the chick. 

Etiology. Within recent years a large number of studies 
concerning the cause, prevention and cure of white diarrhea 
have been conducted. Investigations have been carried on by 
state and national institutions as well as by many private in- 
dividuals. Consequently a large number of alleged causes of 
the disease are given by different writers. Among these may 
be mentioned: Debilitated breeding stock, improper incuba- 
tion, improper brooding, overheating, chilling, poor ventilation, 
over-crowding, poor or improper food and filth as well as spe- 
cific bacteria, fungi or other parasitic organisms. 

Dr. Geo. B. Morse in the Reliable Poultry Journal for July, 
1909, classifies the causes of diarrhea in chicks as follows: 

"First among these causes is the class of physical agents. 
Under this title I would place such agencies as heat or its lack, 
moisture or its lack, producing what we call in human medi- 
cine, the diarrhea of relaxation. Such a condition is produced 
in the intestinal tract that a large amount of serum is driven 
through the intestinal wall into the lumen of the intestine, and 
in doing so the cells are loosened, and thus we have the devel- 
opment of a catarrh. This condition may be brought about by 
the agencies just mentioned." 

''Another class of agencies may be designated foreign bodies, 
and in this class I place such diarrheas as originate from im- 
proper feeding, too early feeding or feeding wrong material. 
We know, from analogy, that in mammalians whether human 
or the lower animals, such a condition is possible." 

''Then we have another large class of intestinal derangements 
or catarrhs or inflammatory conditions produced by what we 
call living agents or parasites. These produce what we may call 
parasitic inflammations. Now, we must subdivide this class 
into two, and we may get rid of one substance at once by placing 
in it those catarrhs or inflammations produced by the larger 
parasites, macroscopic parasites, such as worms." 

"Thus we come to the other sub-class of parasites causing de- 
rangements in the intestines, the microscopic parasites or micro- 
organisms. This sub-class of diarrhoea-producing micro-organ- 
isms falls naturally into 3 groups. Having already referred to 
the animal kingdom in speaking of worms we shall take our 
first group of parasitic micro-organisms from that same king- 



POUIvTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 183 

dom ; these are the protozoa, the lowest animal forms. The oth- 
er two groups of micro-organismal agents of enteritis are found 
in the plant kingdom ; they are bacteria and molds. Hence, the 
3 groups of microscopic agents of intestinal inflammation are 
protozoa, molds and bacteria." 

It is doubtful if many of the cases of true zvhite diarrhea are 
caused by the physical or mechanical agents mentioned in Dr. 
Morse's first two classes. In most cases true white diarrhea 
appears to be an infectious disease. Such disease we know is 
caused by some form of parasitic organism. Without doubt 
improper incubation, brooding and feeding, resulting in weak- 
ened chicks, very often lay the foundation for the attacks of 
parasitic organisms. In many cases these faulty methods of 
handling the eggs and chicks appear to be the real cause of the 
disease while they are really only indirect causes. 

From this it should not be understood that such things as poor 
food, poor brooding and weakened breeding stock are of no 
importance in the study of white diarrhea. It is just exactly 
these predisposing factors which result in chicks with weak con- 
stitutions, easily overcome by disease germs. Without doubt the 
points at which most progress can be made in combatting such 
diseases are in the methods of incubation and in the care of 
the chicks for the first 3 weeks of their lives. Nevertheless 
it should not be forgotten that the death of the chick is caused 
by the ravages of some minute parasitic organism. 

Within recent years several investigators have discovered 
organisms which they believe to be the specific cause of white 
diarrhea. Three of these may be mentioned at this place : (i) 
Coccidium tcnelhim or cuniculi producing the disease called 
*'coccidiosis." (2) Bacterium pidlorum producing "bactillary 
wdiite diarrhea" and (3) Aspergillus furnigatus and allied spe- 
cies, producing aspergillosis or brooder pneumonia of chicks. 
Of these the first two diseases will be considered in some detail 
in the following paragraphs. Aspergillosis is treated in a sepa- 
rate section of this chapter (cf. p. 193). 

Intestinal Coccidiosis. 

In Circular 128 of the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture, Dr. G. B. Morse published a prelim- 
inary account of some investigations on the cause of white diar- 
rhea. Microscopic examination of the intestines of chicks dying 



1 84 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THKIR TREATMENT. 



15 



13 



\Z 



14 



4A^ 



v_.. 



\o 






9 C 



> tnxy - \ \ 



V. 



p ^ ^; . 



v'^ — r 




Fig. 44. Diagrammatic representation of the life history of a 
Coccidium. (xA.fter Cole and Hadley). 



POUI.TRY dise:ase;s and their treatment. 185 

with this disease revealed the presence of large numbers of 
protozoan organisms which he identified as Coccidium tenelhwt. 
At practically the same time Drs. Cole and Hadley of the Rhode 
Island Experiment Station reported finding a similar organism 
in white diarrhea chicks. They identified it as Coccidium cuni- 
culi. These two species of coccidium are so nearly alike that it 
is very difiicult to distinguish them except by prolonged study of 
their life cycles. Various species of coccidia have long been 
known to infest many domestic animals. In all cases that have 
been studied they produce very serious diseases. 

The life history of a coccidium is very complicated yet in or- 
der to combat this parasite most successfully it is necessary to 
know something of its life history. Fig. 44 represents the dif- 
ferent stages in the life history of these parasites. If one should 
examine with a microscope the contents of one of the ceca of a 
chick which died with this form of white diarrhea he would find 
forms somewhat like No. i in the figure. These are the oocysts 
or permanent cysts of the coccidium. The membrane around 
the outside of this cyst is very tough and will withstand almost 
all methods of disinfection. It will live and even grow in sul- 
phuric acid. It can be killed, however, by drying. The size of 
these cysis is about 14-25000 inch and 21-25000 inch. If this 
cyst is placed under the right conditions for development the 
first step is for the protoplasm to divide into 4 spherical bodies 
which are called sporoblasts (fig. 44, 2). Each of these sporo- 
blasts then divide into two sickle-shaped sporozoids (cf. fig. 44, 
3 and 4). These sporozoids are then set free in the intestinal 
tract (4a) and each one penetrates with its pointed end an epi- 
thelial cell of the intestine as at No. 5. In the figure 5a, 5b, 5c, 
6 and 6a, represent the succeeding stages of growth of the or- 
ganism within the intestinal cell. As shown in 6a and 7 the 
parasite grows so large that it completely fills the cell and finally 
these cells are broken down and torn off the intestinal wall. 
The stage of the parasite shown at 6a and 7 is known as the 
schizont. The next step is for the schizont to break up into 
a larger number of sharp pointed bodies as shown at 7a. These 
escape and enter other epithelial cells just as the somewhat sim- 
ilar bodies did at 5. At this point the organism may do one 
of two things. The small sporozoids from 7a may develop 
exactly like the sporozoids did from 5 to 7. This part of the life 



l86 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

cycle, as shown by the shorter arrow from 7a to 5 may be re- 
peated any number of times. 

If, however, the conditions are not very good, i. e., the bird is 
about to die the sporozoids undergo an entirely different devel- 
opment as shown at numbers 7 to 15 (fig. 44). Here the sporo- 
zoids enter the epithelial cells and some develop into very large 
{^gg) cells (female element) as shown at 8, 9 and 10. Others 
go through the development shown in 8a, 9a and loa, forming 
a very large number of minute motile zooids or sperms (male 
element) which unite with one or more of the large ^gg cells 
as shown at 11. After this sexual union there is developed 
the oocyst like No. i, with which we started. At all stages of 
this disease many of these cysts are carried to the outside with 
the feces and upon being picked up serve to infect other chicks. 
Death is caused by the parasite attacking so many of the intes- 
tinal cells that the chick is no longer able to digest its food. 
There are also secondary effects by which the kidneys are de- 
ranged and throw out a large amount of white urates, hence the 
name ''white diarrhea." 

Diagnosis. The symptoms of coccidiosis are similar to those 
of other forms of white diarrhea, (cf. p. 189). The only 
exception is that according to Morse the ceca are always dis- 
tended with yellowish-white cheesy matter. In other forms of 
white diarrhea this may or may not be the case. These differ- 
ent forms of white diarrhea have been too little studied yet to 
permit of an exact differential diagnosis on external symptoms 
even supposing that ever to be possible. With the aid of a 
microscope the finding of coccidial cysts in the fecal matter 
would indicate that these were causing the disease. 

Dr. Hadley has carried out some feeding experiments with 
these coccidia and has found that he is able to produce the dis- 
ease in chicks more than two days old. As will be mentioned 
later (p. 188) it is said that infection with the bacterium of 
bacillary white diarrhea cannot take place after the chick is 48 
hours old. It is possible that further work will show that these 
facts are of some importance in distinguishing these two forms 
of the disease. 

Bacillary JVJiite Diarrhea. 

In May, 1908, Dr. L. F. Rettger and IMr. S. C. Harvey pub- 
lished a paper on ''Fatal Septicemia in Young Chickens or 



POULTRY DISKASKS AND THe:iR TREATMENT. 187 

'White Diarrhea.'" (Journ. Med. Research). From a large 
number of observations and experiments they came to the con- 
clusion that white diarrhea was caused by a bacterium. A num- 
ber of later papers by Dr. Rettger have appeared since then (e. 
g., Journ. Med. Research, July, 1909; Am. Poult. World, Vol. t, 
Nos. 3 and 5 ; also Rettger and Stoneburn, Storrs Agr. Expt. 
Sta. Bui. 60). In all of these the fact has been clearly brought 
out that at least one form of white diarrhea is caused by a 
bacterium. 

Dr. Rettger took chicks which had died with all the symp- 
toms of white diarrhea and by the ordinary bacteriological 
methods obtained pure cultures of a bacterium which had cer- 
tain definite reactions and habits of growth. By these methods 
this bacterium can be distinguished from other kinds. To this 
species of bacteria he gives the name Bacterium pullorum. 
Now if entirely healthy chicks were inoculated with the pure 
culture of this bacterium they almost invariably showed symp- 
toms of white diarrhea and in many cases died. To cite only 
one case; at the Storrs Experiment Station (Bull. 60) 210 
White Leghorn chicks were hatched from healthy stock. These 
were divided into several lots, some of which were infected by 
feeding bouillon cultures of Bacterium pullorum. Other lots 
were used as controls. The results were as follows : "During 
the first two weeks the comparative mortality was as follows : 

Control lots (84 chicks) 5 deaths or 6 per cent. 

Infected lots (126 chicks) 22 deaths or 18 per cent. 
At this time the chicks in the control lots averaged 15 per cent 
more in weight than those in the infected lots and appear in 
every way greatly superior to them." 

In many cases Dr. Rettger was able to find Bacterium pul- 
lorum pure in the artificially infected birds. Further he was 
able to obtain the same bacterium from a large number of dif- 
ferent chicks gathered from widely different localities. Dr. 
Rettger says (Am. Poult. World, January, 1910) : "From the 
blood of the liver, heart and lungs I have repeatedly found the 
organism — Bacterium pullorum. More recently I have been 
able to obtain the organism without difficulty, from the unab- 
sorbed yolk and in some instances from the crop of the affected 
chicks. In some chicks that were quite young at the time of 
death (2 or 3 days) the same bacterium may be found in the 



l88 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

intestines. In older birds it is obscured by the. common and rap- 
idly growing intestinal organisms, particularly the colon bacil- 
lus." 

Dr. Rettger has also been able to find this same organism "in 
(a) the ova in the ovaries of the hens, (b) the yolk of fresh 
laid eggs, (c) eggs incubated for varying lengths of time and 
(d) yolk sacs of fully developed chicks still within the shell." 
This, together with the evidence that the organism does produce 
white diarrhea, shows pretty conclusively that one source of 
infection is the hen. The feeding experiments with pure cul- 
tures of the bacillus apparently show that the infection must 
begin within the first 48 hours after the chicks are hatched. 
Several investigators have shown that it is impossible to infect 
chicks by feeding after they are two days old. It may be said 
that Dr. Rettger has proven that at least one form of white 
diarrhea is caused by a bacterium. The relation of this form 
of the disease to that caused by other organisms is still a subject 
for investigation. 

Diagnosis. The external symptoms of bacillary white diar- 
rhea are much the same as those given for the disease in gen- 
-eral (cf. p. 189)- The following post-mortem appearances are 
reported by Rettger and .Stoneburn : — 

"Crops — Empty or partially filled with slimy fluid or with 
food." 

"Lungs — Apparently normal. (Tubercles not observed)." 

"Liver — Pale, with streaks and patches of red. These appar- 
ently slightly congested areas are usually large in size." 

"Kidney and Spleen — Apparently normal." 

"Intestines — Pale, and for the greater part empty. A small 
amount of dark grayish or brownish matter frequently present." 

"Ceca — V/ith few exceptions but partially filled with a gray- 
ish soft material. Only occasionally cheesy or firm contents." 

"Unabsorbed Yolk — Usually present varying in size from a 
pea to a full-sized yolk. The color may vary from yellow to 
b)rownish green or nearly black. In consistency there is also 
much variation. It may appear perfectly normal, distinctly 
gelatinous, or watery. Frequently it is observed in the char- 
acter of custard and again more or less dry and firm. Unless 
the chick has been dead for some time the yolk is usually not 
found putrid, but merely stale." 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



189 



"The chick as a whole appears more or less anaemic and 
emaciated. The muscles of the wings, breast and legs may be 
almost completely wasted away." 




Fig. 45. Ten day White Leghorn chicks showing symptoms of 
bacillary white diarrhea. (After Rettger and Stoneburn). 

The chief difference between this and coccidiosis appears, to 
be in the contents of the ceca (cf. p. 186). 

Diagnosis of White Diarrhea in General. The symptoms of 
white diarrhea are in general the same for the different forms 
of the disease. They may be briefly stated as follows : The 
affected chicks appear stupid and remain under the hover or hen 
much of the time. They isolate themselves from the rest of 
the flock and appear indifferent to what goes on about them. 
Their feathers become rough and the wings droop (cf. fig. 45). 
There is progressive loss of weight. The birds eat little or 




Fig. 46. Normal ten day White Leghorn chicks. 
and Stoneburn). 



(Alter Rettger 



nothing and appear unable to pick up their food. Their actions 
in this direction are chiefly mechanical. The characteristic 
whitish discharge from the vent very soon makes its appear- 
ance. The discharged matter may be creamy or sometimes 



190 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

mixed with brown. The discharged matter is more or less 
sticky or glairy. In many cases it clings to the down in suffi- 
cient quantity to plug up the vent. This condition is known as 
''pasting up behind." 

Many of the chicks chirp or peep constantly or will utter a 
shrill cry apparently of pain, when attempting to void the excre- 
ta. These sounds are often characteristic of the disease. 

In many cases the chicks present the appearance of being 
''short backed" or "big bellied." Dr. Woods describes this as 
follows : 

"The weakling is almost always big-bellied, the abdomen pro- 
truding to the rear so that it bunches out behind, well out of 
line with the vent, with the result that the chick looks as if 
the tail piece and backbone has been pushed forward and in 
just above the vent." (Cf. fig. 45). 

In some cases the chicks die with but little warning and show 
few of the above symptoms. In other cases the sick chick will 
last a long time showing all the symptoms mentioned. 

Post-mortem examination often reveals but few lesions. One 
of the most striking things is the loss of flesh if the disease has 
lasted for some time. The alimentary canal is usually nearly 
empty except for some. slimy fluid. The organs are all very 
pale. The liver may have a few streaks showing congested 
areas. Some of the unabsorbed yolk may or may not be pres- 
ent. There is considerable variation in its appearance. It is 
not usually putrid unless the chick has been dead for some time. 

The ceca are often filled with firm, cheesy or soft grayish 
material depending apparently to some extent upon the form of 
the disease (cf. pp. 186 and 188). 

Treatment. The treatment of white diarrhea depends some- 
what on the cause. If it is due to improper feeding or brooding 
of course the only treatment consists in removing the cause. 
This will prevent the trouble in the later flocks and will help 
those already affected. A small dose of a good purgative such 
as Epsom salts will probably help in bringing the chicks into 
better condition. Dr. P. T. Woods recommends giving the 
chicks scalded sweet milk with a little grated nutmeg 4 times 
a day. He also recommends boiled rice as food. They should 
have plenty of charcoal before them and in their mash. They 
should also have green food every day. If green food is not 
available raw vegetables may be substituted. Some good anti- 



POULTRY DISKASKS AND THEIR TREATMENT. I9I 

septic should be used in the drinking water. Potassium per- 
manganate as recommended on p. i6 may be used. Dr. Morse 
recommends also bichloride of mercury, using lo of the i-iooo 
grain tablets to one quart of water. Also lo grains of iron sul- 
phate to the gallon of water is said by some to be good. It is 
the opinion of the writers that neither of the latter two is as 
desirable for use as an antiseptic for the water as permanganate. 

These recommendations apply to any case of white diarrhea 
whatever its cause. In the forms of white diarrhea caused by 
parasitic organisms specific modes of treatment or of prevention 
may be recommended. In the case of coccidiosis Dr. Morse 
says that the eggs should be dipped in 95 per cent alcohol or a 
4 per cent solution of a good coal tar disinfectant before they 
are placed in the incubator. The incubators and brooders should 
all be thoroughly disinfected every time they are used. The 
treatment of sick chicks should be as recommended above. 

In the case of bacillary white diarrhea the same recommen- 
dations for disinfection of incubators, brooders and the prem- 
ises should be followed. Dr. Rettger says that it is only dur- 
ing the first 48 hours that the chick can be infected. Conse- 
quently the very greatest care should be taken during those first 
two critical days. However, the fact that the bacterium has 
been found in the yolk of the unhatched — even of the unlaid 
egg — indicates very clearly that something more than disinfec- 
tion is necessary to stamp out the disease. Very great care 
should be exercised in picking out breeding stock. It is very 
likely that the hens which lay the eggs infected with the bac- 
teria were chicks which recovered from white diarrhea. The 
bacteria still continue to live over in their bodies. Every ef- 
fort should be made to locate and remove the source of infec- 
tion. If there is widespread infection on the farm, eggs for 
hatching should be obtained from other places where there is 
little or no white diarrhea. 

On methods of preventing and eliminating bacillary white 
diarrhea Rettger and Stoneburn give the following. 

''If the disease makes its appearance among the flocks of 
chicks every effort should be made to ascertain the source of the 
infection. This may be (a) breeding stock upon the place, 
(b) eggs for hatching secured from other breeders, or (c) newly 
hatched chicks purchased from others." 



192 POUI.TRY DISEASJ:S AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

"If the breeding stock proves infected there are two courses 
of procedure open; (a) market the entire flock or refrain from 
using their eggs for hatching, or (b) install trap nests in the 
breeding pens and by means of accurate pedigree records ascer- 
tain which individual hens are producing infected chicks, and re- 
move such hens from the breeding flock." 

''Since infection may be brought upon the place through pur- 
chased eggs or stock, such purchases should be made from farms 
where bacillary white diarrhea is not common." 

"If bacillary white diarrhea is known to be present on the 
place steps should be taken to prevent the spread of the infec- 
tion, and, if possible, to effect a cure. (As to the latter we do 
not feel justified in offering any suggestions at this time)." 

"Prevention. Since the disease cannot, apparently, be trans- 
mitted through the food supply after the chicks have reached 
the age of 3 or 4 days, every means should be pursued to pre- 
vent the spread of the infection during' this critical period. We 
suggest : 

The segregation of the chicks in small lots during this interval. 

Perfect disinfection and cleanliness of brooders and brooder 
coops. 

Food and water supplied in such a manner as to prevent con- 
tamination by the droppings." 

"The use in the brooder of a liberal amount of fine, absorp- 
tive litter which will quickly cover and seal up the droppings."* 

"Raise and maintain the vigor and vitality of the breeding 
stock and chicks by every reasonable means known to the poul- 
tryman." 

Leg Weakness. 

The term "leg weakness" is sometimes used by poultrymen 
to indicate the lameness due to rheumatism in adult birds. Re- 
garding this form of the disease see p. 123. The more usual 
use of the term ''leg weakness" is to denote a disease or ailment 
which is found in growing chicks, from i month to 6 months 
of age. It is said to be more common among cockerels than pul- 
lets and is more frequent in the heavier than the lighter breeds. 
The chief cause of the trouble seems to be that in birds growing 
rapidly and fed heavily the weight sometimes increases faster 

*For this purpose we have used alfalfa meal with much satisfaction. 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 193 

than the strength. This results in a weak kneed, wobbHng bird. 
The disease is sometimes ascribed to other causes such as over- 
crowding,, close, unventilated quarters, overheating, etc. Salmon 
says "It may develop in young chickens kept in brooders in which 
the heat is not properly distributed or where there is too much 
bottom heat, also in those which are kept constantly upon 
wooden floors." Regarding these cases Robinson says ''Where 
such conditions are present the leg weakness is more likely to 
be an accompaniment of diseases which plainly show other symp- 
toms." 

Diagnosis. The symptoms are indicated in the name of the 
disease. It first appears as an unsteadiness in the walk. This 
may gradually become worse until the bird is unable to stand 
alone and is constantly tumbling over. The birds are found sit- 
ting while eating and are inclined to walk very little. When the 
trouble first appears there is little else wrong with the bird. 
The eye and comb are bright and healthy, the appetite is good. 
Later, however, the bird being weaker than the others gets less 
grain and becomes thin, feathers out poorly and is a distressed 
object. It is said that rheumatism can be distinguished from 
leg weakness by the swelling of the joints in the former disease. 

Treatment. This consists chiefly, of course,- in removing the 
cause. Since the most common cause is the overfeeding with 
fat producing foods, the amount of these should be reduced. 
The weak birds should be removed to a pen by themselves. 
Substitute bran, wheat and oatmeal for the corn and corn meaL 
Give skim milk, if possible, instead of water. Feed plenty of 
green food. This is one of the most important measures. San- 
born recommends rubbing the legs with tincture of arnica and 
adding ^ teaspoonful of tincture of nux vomica to each quart 
of drinking water. 

Aspergillosis or Pneumomycosis. 
This disease, which is discussed on p- i, not only occurs 
in hens but it is also a very common and fatal disease in young 
chicks. It often occurs with white diarrhea and the double dis- 
ease was for a long time considered as one. Poultrymen desig- 
nated the cases in which the lesions occurred in the lungs as 
"lungers." Investigation has shown that there are two diseases 
which may occur separately or together. 

13 



194 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

Diagnosis. This disease is characterized by a dumpish sleepy 
condition of the chick. The wings are pendulent. Breathing 
is rapid and sometimes accompanied by snoring sounds. A 
whitish diarrhea is present. A differential diagnosis between 
this and the coccidial white diarrhea is only possible by an ex- 
amination of the dead birds. In aspergillosis, yellowish tuber- 
cles which closely resemble those of tuberculosis occur in the 
lungs and in the walls of the air sacs and often also in the intes- 
tines, mesentery, liver and other organs. In very acute cases 
the lungs are simply inflamed, death occurring before the forma- 
tion of the tubercles. The mycelium and spores of the fungus 
may be found by microscopic examination of the tubercles and 
this fungus may be obtained by inoculating cultures from these 
lubercles. 

Etiology. The disease is caused by the spores of an Asper- 
gillus usually A. fumigatus, fig. 22. This is a very common 
fungus and the spores are widely distributed in nature. The 
spores are often found on the food or on the litter and are 
inhaled or taken in with the food. Incubator chickens are 
often infected from the incubators and brooders and hen hatched 
chickens from the straw or chaff' in the nests. Sometimes the 
chicks get the disease from chick food not properly cared for. 
It is possible that this disease as well as the coccidial and bacil- 
lary white diarrhea is sometimes carried in the Qgg. The spores 
and mycelium are often found in the digestive tract of hens 
and it is not unlikely that they may work up the oviduct from 
the cloaca and infect an ^gg before it gets its shell. 

Treatment. The treatment of diseased chicks is useless. 
When they are infected the spores develop on the membranes 
and new spores are formed which spread the infection through- 
out the respiratory system and also to the other organs. The 
only effective treatment is prevention. Keeping the flock under 
good hygienic conditions with clean food, litter and nesting ma-~ 
terial reduces the chance of infection and keeps the chicks in a 
vigorous condition in which they are able to resist the disease. 
"The dead chicks should be burned or buried. 

Prognosis. The disease is fatal so far as known. 

Bmphysema. 

This name is applied by Robinson to a disease of young chicks 
in which the skin puffs out in the sides of the neck near its 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. I95 

juncture with the body. The size of the puff varies somewhat. 
In mild cases it is about the size of a hickory nut. Sometimes 
there is one puff, sometimes several. A few cases have been 
reported "where the puffing covers nearly the whole body, the 
skin of the chick being so inflated that locomotion becomes dif- 
ficult." (Robinson). 

According to Vale the trouble generally occurs in growing 
chicks which have been confined in close quarters. It is often 
associated with some lung trouble. It seems to be due to ob- 
struction of the air passages and the rupture of some of the air 
sacs. The air thus escapes into the tissues beneath the skin. 
While not common this disease does occur in Maine. Some 
cases were reported to the Station while this work was in prep- 
aration. 

The treatment suggested by Yale is to puncture the skin with 
a needle and to give 2 grains nitrate of iron to each wine glassful 
of drinking water. Robinson, however, says : "It is rather to 
be recommended that no effort be made to treat such chicks. 
Even if cured of the trouble, they rarely develop satisfactorily." 

Gapes. 

Gapes is a disease which attacks domestic poultry and many 
species of wild birds. In fowls it is more frequently observed 
in young chicks. It occurs also in adult fowls but rarely causes 
enough inconvenience to attract attention. The disease is due 
to the presence of minute parasitic worms in the air passages. 

Diagnosis. "The symptoms of gapes are frequent gaping, 
sneezing, a whistling cough with discharge of mucus and worms, 
dumpishness, weakness and .drooping wings. When badly af- 
fected, the bird shakes its head frequently, gapes and coughs as 
if suffocating, droops and is not able to keep up with the rest 
of the flock, and stands in "dumpish" position with eyes closed, 
wings drooped, mouth open and tongue protruding." (Woods, 
Rel. Poult. Rem.) 

The correctness of a diagnosis for gapes should be tested by 
determining whether or not the worms are present in the tra- 
chea. When chicks are dying from a disease supposed to be 
gapes the trachea of a dead bird may be examined. If the trou- 
ble is gapes the worms will be found attached in pairs to the 
mucous membrane of the trachea. 



196 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 




Fig. 47. Trachea (windpipe) of 
a pheasant showing gape 
worms (Syngamus tracheal is) 
attached to the mucous mem- 
brane. (After Megnin). 



Fig. 48. A pair of 
Syngamus trache- 

alis, attached. 
(After Megnin). 



The two sexes are joined together in such a way that a pair 
looks Hke a double headed worm. The female is about ^ inch 
long and the male about 1-5 inch. The worms are pale in color 
when empty but when they have been feeding they are red with 
the blood of the chick. The presence of the worms in the tra- 
chea of a living chick may be demonstrated by passing a gape 
worm extractor (a loop of horse hair or fine wire or a feather 
with the vane removed except at the tip) carefully down the 
trachea for some distance turning it around to loosen the worms 
and drawing it out. If the worms are present some will be 
removed with the extractor. 



POULTRY DISe:ASES AND THKIR TREATMENT. 197 



!9 




Fig. 49. A pair of Synganius tracliealis. A, male. B, female. 
(After Megnin). 



198 POULTRY DISi:ASi:S AND THi:iR TREATMENT. 

The presence of the worms causes an irritation and inflamma- 
tion of the membrane and stimulates the secretion of mucus. 
Some of the accumulation of worms and mucus is expelled by 
coughing. Sometimes part of it is swallowed and expelled with 
the feces. The loosened material may be drawn into the deeper 
air passages during inspiration. Death may occur from suffo- 
cation due to the obstruction of the air passages with worms and 
mucus, or weak individuals may die from loss of blood. 

Etiology. The only cause of the disease is the nematode or 
thread worm Syngamus trachealis Siebold, called the gape worm, 
red worm, or forked worm. (See figs. 47 to 49). These para- 
sites obtain their nourishment by sucking the blood from the 
mucous membrane of the trachea. They are attached in pairs 
to the membrane by their sucker-like mouths. Beside bringing 
about a considerable loss of blood the worms cause irritation and 
inflariniation of the membrane and a copious secretion of mucus. 
The Iwo sexes are so closely attached to each other that they 
can not be separated without tearing. The body of an adult 
female is swollen with thousands of eggs and occasionally con- 
tains some embryos. The eggs are not laid but escape when the 
body of the female is ruptured. This may take place with the 
decomposition of the worm or the body may be torn by the 
coughing of the bird. The eggs may develop and grow to 
adult worms within the trachea of the same bird. The worms, 
eggs and embryos are often coughed up. Sometimes they are 
swallowed and then some of the eggs and embryos may be passed 
with the feces. The worms coughed up are eagerly eaten by 
the same or other birds and the ova and embryos are often taken 
with contaminated food and drink. Developing embryos have 
been found in earth worms living in infected poultry yards, 
and these will cause gapes if fed to chicks. 

The eggs and embryos need only warmth and moisture to 
develop. Eggs may develop in the digestive organs. It is not 
known how the embryos reach the trachea from the digestive 
organs. A large number of those eaten never reach the tra- 
chea but are either digested or voided with the feces. Salmon 
says : "Although there are some thousands of eggs in the adult 
worms, 10 to 15 worms have been fed to a single chicken, and, 
as a result, not over 4 or 5 embryos would reach and develop 
in the trachea." According to Theobald, Ehler found copulated 
worms where several of the females were full of worms 10 days 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. I99 

after feeding ova to healthy chicks. Wet clay soils are especial- 
ly favorable to the gape worms, and they thrive best in warm, 
wet weather. 

Treatment. In eradicating the disease it is important to iso- 
late all affected birds so that the worms and ova coughed up or 
voided with the excrement may not be eaten by the other chicks 
or contaminate the food, drink, and the ground of the runs. 
Burn the bodies or at least the heads and necks of all dead birds. 
The feed troughs and water dishes should be scalded and the 
houses, and coops disinfected. Use potassium permanganate 
in the drinking water. If possible provide fresh runs on which 
there has been no poultry for several years. The following par- 
agraph from Robinson is much to the point : 

''Preventive treatment to be fully effective, seems to require 
that fowls be kept away from infected ground for several sea- 
sons. It is said that ground from which poultry is kept for 
three years, the land meanwhile being sown to grass or culti- 
vated, will be entirely free from the gape worm. To a poultry 
keeper whose area of land is small this means moving or keep- 
ing no poultry for several years. Where land is abundant gape 
worms can often be avoided by moving the poultry to a plot not 
recently occupied by them. Treatment to disinfect the soil by 
destroying the gape worms in it, the object being to continue the 
poultry on it, is not often profitable." 

The following methods have been recommended for disinfect- 
ing the ground. It is doubtful if these are economically advis- 
able. 

Treating the ground with air slaked lime and spading. 
Sprinkling with one of the following solutions : 
T per cent or 2 per cent sulphuric acid. 
2 ounces of copperas dissolved in a pail of water. 
^ ounce of crystals of potassium permanganate to a bar- 
rel of water. 

The lime or acid treatments are most often recommended. 
The infected birds should be kept in houses easily cleaned and 
disinfected and this should be done frequently to prevent re- 
infection of the recovering birds. Theobald advises an addition 
of 3 drams of salicylate of soda to each quart of drinking wa- 
ter to destroy eggs and embryos that may contaminate it. 

The individual surgical method may be profitably practiced 
in some cases. It seems to be the only sure method yet ad- 



200 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

vised of ridding an infested bird of the parasites. Wright gives 
the following description of the method : 

"The old-fashioned cure was to strip a small quill-feather, all 
but a small tuft at the point, and (moistening it in turpentine 
or not) introduce it into the trachea, turn it round, and withdraw 
it with the worms. This is effectual, but requires care to pre- 
vent lacerating the wind-pipe or causing suffocation. In this 
way 30 worms have been successfully extracted from one 
chicken. A very much better method is to take two straight 
hairs from a horse's tail, laid together, tie a knot on the end of 
the pair, and cut off the ends close to the knot. This is passed 
straight (i. e., without twisting) down the. windpipe as far as 
it will go without bending, then twisted between the finger and 
thumb and drawn out. A trial or two may miss, but usually 5 
or 6 attempts will bring up 4 or 5 worms, and the hairs inserted 
in this way, without twisting, do not seem to hurt the chicks, and 
are used with the greatest facility. The bringing up of even 
from 4 to 10 worms, and the failure of more to come after a 
blank trial or two, may usually be reckoned as a cure." 

Wire gape worm extractors may be bought from dealers in 
poultry supplies, or one can make one for himself by taking No. 
30 wire, forming a loop at one end just big enough to go easily 
down the trachea, and then twisting together the ends of the 
wire to form a long handle. Worms removed should be burned. 

Prognosis. This disease is often fatal in young chicks from 
one to four weeks old, especially in small weak birds. Young- 
chicks and in most adult fowls it often causes little inconven- 
ience. These fowls, however, are constant sources of infec- 
tion. The removal of the worms from the trachea if skilfully 
done so that the delicate membrane is not injured usually effects 
a cure but this individual treatment requires considerable time 
and the value of the chicks must determine whether or not it 
is economically profitable. 



CHAPTER XX. 



Poultry Surgery. 

It is proposed to consider in this section those pathological 
conditions of poultry which demand surgical tr?atment lor their 
cure. At the outstart it should be said inat poultry bear and 
recover from surgical operations very well. The common prac- 
tice of caponizing, usually done without any aseptic precaution 
whatever and with small losses from infection, is sufficient evi- 
dence of this. Probably no mammal would bear opening the 
abdominal cavity (which is done is every caponizing operation) 
with such entire and nearly uniform freedom from ill effects as 
attends this operation with poultry. The reason why poultry 
make such excellent surgical subjects lies in their marked 
resistance to all pyogenic (pus producing) germs. 

The Treatment of Cuts, Tears and All Open Wounds. 

Very severe wounds may be successfully treated by adher- 
ing to the following procedure : 

1. Thoroughly wash the hands in warm water, using plenty 
of soap, before handling the wounds at all. After the hands 
have been well scrubbed, rinse them thoroughly in a pan of I 
to 1000 bichloride of mercury solution (p. 29) and dry with 
a clean towel. 

2. Pull out the feathers in the region around the wound, and 
thoroughly cleanse it, using first zvarm zvater, and follow this 
with ivarm i to 1000 bichloride solution. A piece of clean soft 
cloth may be used for this purpose, or absorbent cotton. Make 
sure that the wound is thoroughly clean. Do not be afraid of 
hurting the bird. A little pain at the start is preferable to a 
dead bird later. 

3. If necessary sew up the wound, using a good sized sewing 
needle and silk. Both needle and silk should be soaked in al- 
cohol for 15 minutes before using. Small wounds need not be 
sewed. Large ones will heal much quicker and more certainly 
if they are sewed. If the wound involves the muscles as well 



202 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

as the skin sew it up in two layers ; one set of stitches including^ 
only the muscles, the other set only the skin. 

4. Paint the skin in the region about the wound, but not the 
zvound itself with dilute tincture of iodine. 

5. Powder the wound well with iodoform. 

6. Smear a thick layer of the ointment already recommended 
(p. 30) over all. 

7. If the wound is very severe bandage it with a clean 
cloth. 

The above treatment is only necessary in its entirety in very 
severe cases. Depending upon the gravity of the condition the 
following items in the treatment may be omitted in the order 
named : 

7 may be omitted except in most serious cases. 

7 and 3 may be omitted in less severe cases. 

7, 3 and 4 may be omitted in still less severe cases. 

7, 3, 4, and I may be omitted in still less severe cases. 

In case of slight wounds which appear still to demand some 
treatment 6 and 2 or even 6 alone will suffice. 

Abscess. 

Should an abscess appear lance it with a clean sharp knife, 
making sure to cut to the bottom. Squeeze out the pus and core 
if there is one, and then proceed to heal it by following the 
treatment above outlined for wounds in general. 

Bumble foot. 

This is an abscess of the foot which may result from a variety 
of causes, e. g., too high roosts, too narrow roosts, undiscovered 
wounds caused by stepping on nails, splinters of glass, etc. It 
is usually not discovered until the bird becomes lame. 

The best treatment to follow is first to tie a cord tightly about 
the leg above the foot to control the flow of blood ; then with a 
clean, narrow bladed, sharp knife open up the abscess thorough- 
ly. Go clear to the bottom and dig out the core. Then follow 
in detail, omitting nothing except j, the treatment given above 
for wounds. Two days after the first treatment take off the 
bandages and repeat the treatment, going through in order steps, 
I, 2, 4, 5, 6 and 7. In some cases a third treatment after a lapse 
of 2 or 3 days may be necessary, but usually not if the first treat- 
ment is thorough. 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 203 

Of course the bird under treatment should be isolated and 
kept in a small pen with soft litter on the floor. 

Broken Bones. 

If a bird is sufficiently valuable to warrant the trouble it is 
possible to set fractures of the long bones of legs and wings, and 
get successful union. A splint should be made for the affected 
part and carefully and thoroughly bound into place. Healing 
is rapid, and it should be possible to remove the splints in three 
weeks from the time they are put on if not before. In our ex- 
perience firm union has occurred in less time than this. 

Frozen Combs and Wattles. 

In northern parts of the country frozen wattles and combs^ 
especially in male birds, are very common occurrences. The 
trouble is more apt to be with the wattles than the comb, be- 
cause the former dip into the drinking water and then freeze at 
times when if dry, they would not do so. 

The following brief but adequate directions for treating 
frozen combs and wattles are taken from Farm Poultry, Vol. 
15, p. 41 : "First thaw the wattles or combs out by manipulat- 
ing with the fingers well smeared with vaseline. Keep the bird 
in a cool (not cold) place, and anoint the frozen parts with a 
mixture of vaseline, 5 tablespoonfuls ; glycerine, 2 tablespoon- 
fuls; turpentine, one tablespoonful, once or twice a day. If he 
is not very badly frosted it probably will make no difference 
with his breeding a few months from now — provided he is not 
again injured the same way." 

Anesthetizing Poultry. 

From time to time requests come to the Station for informa- 
tion regarding the most satisfactory method of anaesthetizing 
birds. On this account it seems desirable to republish the fol- 
lowing material extracted from a paper written some time ago 
by R. Pearl and Frank M. Surface on this subject (Jour. Amer. 
]Med. Asso.. Vol. 52, pp. 382 and 383). 

"The difficulty which we have found to be inherent in anes- 
thetizing the domestic fowl may be stated briefly in this way : 
If any anesthetic is pushed to the point at which the bfrd is in 
satisfactory condition for operative procedure in about 9 cases 
out of 10 the bird will die on the table from the effects of the 



j204 poultry diseases and their treatment. 

anesthesia before the operation, if extensive, can be completed. 
If, on the other hand, the anesthetic is given less freely the bird 
does not lose its reflex excitability. Every time a cut is made or 
a nerve is pinched with the forceps the bird will struggle. Our 
experience in anesthetizing birds, which has now covered a large 
number of individuals, leads us to believe that the only middle 
ground between these two extremes is afforded by those cases 
(unfortunately too few) in which the individual idiosyncrasy of 
the bird toward ether makes it take the anesthetic well. 

While we have made no detailed physiologic study as to the 
fundamental reasons underlying this difficulty respecting anes- 
thesia which has been described, it seems reasonably apparent 
what these reasons are. Connected with the respiratory organs 
proper of a bird are the relatively enormous air sacs. During 
anesthesia the ether or chloroform vapor gets into these air sacs 
either by diffusion or directly as a result of respiratory move- 
ments. There is reason to believe that the vapor, once in the 
air sacs, stays there until it is absorbed by the tissues ; in other 
words, it appears to be the case that the great bulk of an inhaled 
anesthetic in the case of birds must be eliminated from the body 
by way of the urinary organs rather than the respiratory or- 
gans. Assuming this to be the case there is no difficulty in see- 
ing why forcing an anesthetic in a bird leads to disastrous re- 
sults. The relatively enormous area for absorption afforded by 
-the air sacs insures that a correspondingly large amount of the 
anesthetic will be taken up very quickly. This almost imme- 
diately affects the vagus center, with the consequent cardiac 
inhibition, respiratory failure and death. 

The exact method of procedure which we now follow in an- 
esthetizing birds is as follows : Immediately before beginning 
the administration of the anesthetic a 1-200 grain atropin sul- 
phate tablet is dissolved in i c. c. of warm normal saline solu- 
tion. The salt solution with the dissolved atropin is then in- 
jected subcutaneously in the axilla. Ether is used as the anes- 
thetic. It is administered from a small improvised mask which 
admits of the condition of the comb being seen during the opera- 
tion. Depending on how hard the ether is pushed, the bird is 
ready for operation in from 15 to 20 minutes after the 
anesthesia is begun. The dosage of 1-200 grain atropin to a 
Ttird may seem large, but we have never been able to see the 
-slightest bad effect from it, provided the administration of ether 
-was begun immediately after the injection of the atropin." 



Glossary oi- Technical Terms. 



Abdomen. — That portion of the body which contains the internal or- 
gans. Belly. 

^iy sac. — One of the membranous sacs filled with air in different parts 
of the body, especially in the abdominal region. 
They often extend into the cavities of the bones 
and connect with the lungs. 

Albumen portion of oviduct. — See p. 157. 

Anaemia. — A condition in which the blood is deficient either in quality 
or quantity. It is marked by paleness and loss of 
energy. 

Anus. — The external opening of the intestine. Vent. 

Apathetic. — Lacking in feeling or ambition. Indifferent. 

Arachnida. — A class of invertebrate animals including among other 
groups the spiders, scorpions and mites. 

Articular. — Pertaining to the joints. 

Astringent. — Causing contraction and arresting discharges. 

Atony. — Lack of normal tone or strength. 

Atrophy. — A wasting of diminution of the size of ?, part. 

Auditory meatus. — The opening into the ear. 

Avian. — Pertaining to birds. 

Axilla. — The region under the wing where the latter joins the body. 

Bile. — The substance secreted by the liver. Gall. 

Bronchi. — The tubes which lead from the end of the windpipe (trachea) 
to the two lungs, (cf. fig. 12). 

Carcinoma. — A malignant tumor or cancer. 

Catheter.— A tubular surgical instrument for discharging fluids from a 
cavity of the body or for distending a passage. 

Cecum {plural ccca). — A blind intestinal pouch of which there are two 
in the fowl. 

Cell. — The smallest element of an organized body that manifests inde- 
pendent vital activities. A morphological or struc- 
tural unit of an organism. 

Chronic. — Long continued but not acute. 

Cleavage. — The division of the cells of an embryo. 

Cloaca. — The enlarged portion of the alimentary canal just before the 
vent. The intestine, the ureters (tubes from the 
kidneys) and the oviduct open into the cloaca. 
Conjunctiva. — The delicate membrane that lines the eyelids and covers 
the eyeball in front. 



:206 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

Contagious. A disease which is communicable by direct contact. 
Copiilation.SQxua] intercourse. With fowls "treading." 
Conica.^The hard transparent structure forming the anterior part of 

the eyeball. 
Creolin.—A thick black liquid coal tar preparation. It has antiseptic 

properties. 
Cresol.—A coal tar product with antiseptic and germicidal properties. 
■Cyst— A sac-like growth which usually contains a liquid or a semi-solid. 
Demulcent. — A soothing mucilaginous or oily medicine. 
Dermoid cyst. — A form of congenital cyst often containmg skin-like 

structures. 
Diuretic— A medicine that increases the activity of the kidneys. 
Bcchymoscs (ek-kim-o-ses). — Discoloration of the skin caused by blood 

outside of the blood vessels as in a bruise. 
Emaciated. — Very lean or wasted condition of the body. 
Bnema. A liquid injection in the rectum or cloaca. 
Enteritis. — Inflammation of the intestine. In human medicine confined 

chiefly to the small intestine. 
Epidemic— A disease that is widely prevalent in a community or locality. 
Epidermis. — The outer or non-vascular layer of the skin. The cuticle. 
Epithelioma. — A cancer or malignant tumor consisting chiefly of cells 

derived from the skin or mucous membrane. 
Epithelium. — The covering or outer layer of the skin and mucous mem- 
branes. 
Ergot. — A fungus which afifects and finally replaces the seed of a cereal 
grass. Used chiefly in connection with the ergot of 
rye which is poisonous to poultry. Ergot as a drug 
has the property of causing the mammalian uterus 
to contract. 
Etiology. — The causation of any disease. 
Exudate. — A substance thrown out of the body or deposited in a tissue 

by a vital process. 
Feces. — The excrement or undigested residue of the food discharged 

from the intestines. Dung. Droppings. 

Flagellate micro-organism. — Any minute microscopic organism which 

swims through the water by means of the lashing 

of one or more hair-like structures (flagella). 

Follicle. — See p. 157. 

Gall bladder. — The reservoir for the bile or gall secreted by the liver. 

It is readily seen on the upper side of the liver. 
G alius domesticus. — The scientific name for the domestic fowl. 
Gangrene. — See p. 174. Gangrene of oviduct. 
Gastritis. — Inflammation of the stomach. 

Hermaphrodite. — An organism which has bolli li^ale anci female re- 
productive organs. 
Hemorrhage. — Bleeding. A copious escape of blood from the vessels. 
Hepatic. — Pertaining to the liver. 
Hyperaemia. Excess of blood in any part of the body. 



POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 207 

Hypertrophy. — The morbid enlargement or overgrowth of an organ or 

part. 
Immunity. — Security against any particular disease. 
Infection. — The transmission of disease from one animal to another 

usually through some intermediate agent. 
Infiltration. — The accumulation in a tissue of substances not normally 

found in it. 
Inoculation. — The insertion of a virus into a wound or abrasion in the 

skin in order to communicate a disease. 
Isthnms. — See p. 158. 

Keratitis. — Inflamation of the cornea of the eye. 
Larva. — The first stage in development after leaving the egg. Used 

in connection with insects, worms, etc. 
Larynx. — A muscular and cartilaginous structure situated at the base 

of the tongue and connecting with the windpipe 

(trachea). It is the organ of voice. 
Lesion. — Any hurt, wound or local degeneration. 
Leucocytes. — White blood corpuscles: 
Lymphatic. Pertaining to or containing lymph which is a transparent 

slightly yellow liquid which fills the lymphatic ves- 
sels. It corresponds in some respects to the serum 

or liquid portion of the blood. 
Mammal. — Any vertebrate animal which suckles its young. 
Melanosis. — Pertaining to an abnormal deposit of pigment. 
Mesentery. — The fold of peritoneum attached to the intestines. 
Metamorphosis. — In insects the change from larval to adult form as from 

caterpillar to butterfly. 
Micro-organism. — Any minute (microscopic) animal or plant. Often 

used in referring to bacteria or germs. 
Mite. — A small arthropod somewhat related to spiders. (Cf. fig. 31). 
Mucosa. — The mucous membrane. 

Mucous membrane. — The lining of the internal cavities of the body. 
Mucus. — The viscid secretion of certain (mucous) glands. 
Mycelium. — The thread-like portion of a fungus. (Cf. fig. 38). 
Nacreous. — Resembling mother-of-pearl. 
Necrotic. — Pertaining to dead or decaying tissue. 
Nucleus (PI. nuclei). — A spherical body within a cell. The nucleus is 

essential to the life of the cell. 
Oesophagus. — That portion of the alimentary canal between the mouth 

(pharynx) and the crop. 
Oral. — Pertaining to the mouth. 

Ovary. — The female sexual organ in which the eggs develop. 
Oviduct. — The tube through which the egg parses from the ovary to the 

cloaca. 
Ovum, (plural ova). — The eg^, particularly while on the ovary. 

(Cf. fig. 40). 
Panophthalmia. — Inflammation of all the structures or tissue of the eye. 
Papilla. — A small nipple shaped elevation. 
Pathology. — That branch of medicine which treats especially of the tissue 

changes caused by disease. 



208 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

Pericardium. — The membranous sac which contains the heart. 
Peristalsis. — The worm-like movements of the intestine and oviduct by 

which the contents of these tubes are propelled. 
Peritonitis. — inflammation of the peritoneum or the membrane lining the 

abdominal ca\ity. 
Pharynx. — That portion of the alimentary canal between the mouth and 
the oesophagus. It also communicates with the 
larynx and nasal passages at its upper end. 
Prognosis. — The prospect as to recovery from a disease or a forecast 
as to the probable result of an attack of a disease. 
Protoplasm. — A viscid granular material which forms the essential con- 
stituent of the living cell. Living substance. 
Protozoa. — A class of unicellular animal micro-organisms. 
ProvcntricuJus. — That portion of a bird's alimentary canal lying be- 
tween the crop and the gizzard. Often called the 
stomach. 
Punctiforni hemorrhages. Presenting the appearance as if punctured 
by a large number of fine prickle or needle holes 
from which the blood oozes. 
Purgative. — Causing evacuations of the bOwels. 
Pyaemia.— Blood poison due to microbic origin. 

Sarcoma. — A kind of tumor or cancer not always of a malignant nature. 
Scabies. — A contagious skin disease caiised by a mite. 
Sclerotic. — Pertaining to the hard white fibrous membrane which with 

cornea forms the outermost coats of the eyeball. 
Serum. — The clear liquid which separates from the clot and the corpus- 
cles in the clotting of blood. 
Spleen. — An oval shaped organ normally about one-half inch in diameter 
and of a dark red color. It lies immeolately above 
the liver and between that and the proventriculus. 
Spore. — The reproductive cell of many protozoa and of many lower 
plants. It is usually enclosed in tough membranes 
and is difficult to kill. 
Stigma. — See p. 157. 
Subcutaneous. — Beneath the skin. 

Sub-mucosa. — The layer of tissue situated beneath the mucous mem- 
brane. 
Syncope (sin-ko-pe).— Fainting. Failure of the heart's action. 
Trachea. — The wind-pipe. 
Traumatic. — Caused by an injury. 

Therapeutic. — Pertaining to the art and science of healing. 
Urate.— A salt of uric acid. A product of the secretion of the kid- 
neys. The white part of a fowl's droppings. 
Ureters. — The tubes leading from the kidneys to the cloaca. 
Uterus. — See p. 158. 
Fa^m(7.— That portion of the oviduct between the shell gland and the 

cloaca. 
Virulent. — Extremely poisonous or dangerous. 
Vir7is. — Any animal poison, especially one produced by and capable of 

transmitting a disease. 
Viscera. — The internal organs of the body. 



INDEX. 



PAGET 

Abdomen, baggy 3o 

liquid in 73 

Abdominal dropsy 73 

Abnormal eggs ^75 

Abortion of eggs ^°4 

Abscess ^°^ 

Acarina ^^^ 

Air 14 

Air sacs ^^ 

Air-sac mite ^ ^° 

Alimentary tract 32 

Amoeba meleagridis 53 

Anaesthetizing poultry ^oj 

Anatomy of reproductive organs ^55 

respiratory organs °5 

Apoplexy ^ ^° 

Apothecaries' weights and measures 3i 

Arsenic as poison 44 

Articular gout ^^^ 

Ascites 75 

Aspergillosis 53. I04 

in chicks ^93 

Atrophy of liver . .• 5^ 

ovary ^°^ 

Autopsy ^4 

Bacillary white diarrhea ^°^ 

Bacillus tuberculosis 5° 

Baldness • ^47 

"Bed bug" of poultry ^45 

Bichloride of mercury -5^ 

Blackhead 53 

Blood, diseases of ^ ^4 

Blood vessels, rupture of ^ ^3 

Bloody diarrhea 40, 44, 5i, 79 

Bloody spots in eggs "^^^ 

Body mange ^44 

Bones, broken -^3 



2IO POULTRY DISKASKS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

PAGE 

Books on poultry diseases 2 

Brain congestion IIQ 

hemorrhage of 118 

postmortem appearance of 118 

Breaking of egg in oviduct 174 

''Break down" I79 

Breeding, for health and vigor 6 

Broken bones 203 

Bronchitis 88 

Bumblefoot 202 

Calomel 28 

Cancers 55> 163 

Canker 90, 103 

Castor oil 28 

Carcinomatosis 55 

Catarrh 87, 90 

Catechu 28 

Cayenne 28 

Ceca, post-mortem appearance of 186, 188 

Cercomoniasis 55 

Chicken pox 150 

Chickens, diseases of 181 

Cholera 66 

Circulatory system, diseases of 112 

Cleanliness 10 

Cloacitis • 177 

Coccidia 53, 185 

Coccidiosis, intestinal 183 

Coccidium, life history of 185 

Cold 87 

Comb, frozen 203 

white 147 

Congestion of lungs 107 

Constipation 37, 41, 42 

Constitution, breeding for 6 

Contagious catarrh 90 

Convulsions 44, 45 

Copper poisoning 44 

Cremation 20 

Cresol disinfectant 12 

Crop, enlarged 36 

impacted 32 

inflammation of 34 

Cropping poultry ranges 18 

Croup 88 

Cuts, treatment of 201 

Cytodites nudiis no 



INDEX. 211 

PAGE 

Dampness 15 

Dandelion, for liver trouble 51 

Dead birds, disposal of 20 

Depluming scabies 142 

Uennanyssiis galUnac 133 

Diagnosis of disease 22 

Diarrhea 34, 40, 42, 44, 45, 48, 67 

Diarrhea, white 181 

Diphtheria 90 

Diphtheritic roup 90 

Disinfection 11 

Dissection of bird 25 

Distemper 89 

Double and triple yolked eggs 1 76 

Dove cote bug 145 

Drepanidotaeiiia yy 

Drinking water 16 

Droppings, appearance of normal ^8 

green 67 

Dropsy js 

Dysentery 39 

Dyspepsia 42 

Egg bound 169 

breaking of in oviduct 174 

laying, physiology of 1 59 

Eggs, abnormal 175 

abortion of 164 

double and triple yolked 176 

inclusions in 177 

misshapen 177, 178 

small 176 

soft shelled 175 

spots in 1 77 

yolkless 176 

Emphysema 194 

Endocarditis 112 

Enlargement of heart 113 

liver 50 

Enteritis 39 

Enterohepatitis, infectious 53 

Epilepsy 119 

E'.pithelioma contagiosum 150 

Epizootic 89 

Epsom salts 28 

Ergot as poison 45 

Eversion of oviduct 167 

Exercise 20 



212 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

PAGE 

External parasites ^^4 

Extractor, gape worm 200 

Eyes, roup of 94, 100 

Fatty degeneration of liver 5i 

Favus -^47 

Feeding, hygienic I5, 49 

Flea, "hen" MS 

Flukes 83 

Follicle, failure to rupture '. 165 

Formaldehyde disinfection 12 

Frozen comb -'^3 

Frozen wattle 203 

Fungus ^°5 

Gangrene of oviduct I74 

Gapes 195 

Gastritis 36 

Gleet, vent '^11 

Glossary 205 

Goniodcs dissiiiiilis 127 

Gout 56, 121 

articular 121 

visceral 121 

Green droppings 67 

Green food 16 

Grippe 89 

Harvest bug I45 

Health, breeding for 6 

Health type 7 

Heart, enlargement of 113 

post-mortem appearance of 68, 112, 113, 115, 121 

Heart sac, dropsy of 112 

Hctcrakis perspicillnm 83 

Housing 10 

Hygiene 8 

essentials of 21 

Hypertrophy of liver 50 

yolk 164 

Inclusions in eggs 177 

Indigestion 42 

Infectious enterohepatitis 53 

leukaemia 114 

Inflammation of mouth 102 

oviduct 165 

Influenza 89 

Inoculation for cholera 70 

Internal parasites 75 

Intestinal coccidiosis 183 



INDEX. 213 

PAGE 

Intestines 37 

post-mortem appearance of. .40, 50, 62, 68, 79, 115, 121, 188, 194 

Jaundice 52 

Kidneys, diseases of 121 

Kidneys, post-mortem appearance of 68, 113, 121, 188 

Knemidocoptes mutans 138 

Land 18 

Lead as poison 45 

Leg weakness 192 

Leukaemia, infectious 114 

Lice 125 

powder 130 

Life history of coccidium 185 

Light 14 

Limberneck 123 

Lipenrtis variabilis 127 

Litter 15 

Liver, atrophy of 52 

diseases 47 

enlargement of 50 

fatty degeneration of 51 

hypertrophy of 50 

post-mortem appearance of 40, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 61, 68, 

113, 115, 121, 188, 194 

Lungs 85 

congestion of 107 

post-mortem appearance of 104,108,113,116,188,194 

Lye as poison 44 

Male reproductive organs, diseases of 180 

Mallophaga 125 

Mange, body 144 

Measures 31 

Medicines 28 

Menopon pallidum 126 

Mercury, bichloride of 29 

Misshapen eggs 177 

Mite, air sac no 

Mites 132 

Monocercomonas gallinarum 55 

Mouth, inflammation of 102 

Mycosis of the air passages 104 

Myocarditis diphtheritica 1 13 

Nervous system, diseases of 118 

Nitrate of soda as poison 44 

Nits 128 

Nodular taeniasis 78 

Obstruction of oviduct 169 

vent 41 



214 POULTRY DISEASES AND THKIR TREATMENT. 

PAGE 

Ointment 3° 

Operation, for "egg bound" I7i 

impacted drop 34 

Ovarian tumors ^^3 

Ovary, atrophy of i6o 

diseases of i6o 

gangrene of • 103 

post-mortem appearance of 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165 

Overfeeding IS> 48 

Oviduct, diseases of 165 

gangrene of 1/4 

inflammation of 165 

obstruction of 169 

prolapse of 167 

rupture of I73 

Pericarditis 112 

Peritonitis 22 

Permanganate, potassium 16 

Phosphorus as poison 45 

Physiology of reproductive organs I55 

respiratory organs 85 

Pip 102 

Pneumomycosis, in chicks 193 

Pneumonia 108 

Poisons 44 

Poisonous plants 46 

Post-mortem appearance of brain 118 

ceca 186,188 

heart 68, 112, 113, 115, 121 

intestines . . .40, 50, 62, 68, 79, 115, 121, 188, 194 

kidneys 68, 113, 121, 188 

liver 40, 47, 49 to 56, 61, 68, 113, IIS, 121, 

188, 194 

lungs 104, 108, 113, 116, 188, 194 

ovary 160 to 165 

spleen 40, 61, 113, 121, 188 

Post-mortems, how to make 24 

Potassium permanganate 16 

Poultry surgery 201 

Powder, lice 130 

Prevention of cholera 70 

disease 5 

Prolapse of oviduct 167 

Purity of blood 15 

Rotation, crops and chickens 18 

Reproductive organs, anatomy and physiology of 155 

diseases of 155 



INDKX. 



215 



PAGE 

Respiratory system, anatomy 85 

diseases of 85 

Rheumatism 123 

Round worms ' 82 

Roup 90 

Rule of treatment 5 

Rupture of blood vessels 113 

heart 113 

oviduct 173 

Salt as poison 44 

Salts, epsom 28 

Sanitation ._ 8 

Sarcomatosis 55 

Sarcoptes laevis 142 

Scabies, depluming 142 

Scaly leg 135 

Sickness, isolation 21 

Skin, diseases of 147 

Small eggs 176 

Soft-shelled eggs 175 

Sore head 150 

Spleen, post-mortem appearance of 40,61,113,121,188 

Spots in eggs 177 

Stock tonic 43 

Stomach, inflammation of ;^6 

Strychnine 45 

Surgery, poultry 201 

Symplectoptes cysticola 144 

Symptoms, table of 23 

Syngamtis trachealis iq6, 197 

Table of symptoms 23 

Tablets 29 

Taeniasis, nodular 78 

Tainted ground 19 

Tape worms 76 

Tears, treatment of 201 

Thrush 103 

Tonic 43 

Tuberculosis 57, 100 

distribution of 57 

Tumors 55, 93, 163 

Vent gleet 177 

Vertigo 119 

Vigor, breeding for 6 

Visceral gout 121 

Vomiting 35, 45 

Wasting of liver 52 



APR 10 1911 

216 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

PAGE 

Water, drinking 16 

Wattles, frozen 203 

Weights 31 

White comb 147 

White diarrhea 181 

White diarrhea, bacillary 186 

White diarrhea, diagnosis of 189 

prevention of 192 

treatment of 190 

W^orms 75 

flukes 83 

round 82 

tape 76 

trematode 83 

Wounds, treatment of 201 

Yolk hypertrophy 164 

Yolkless eggs 176 

Zinc poisoning 45 



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